The Christian’s Duty to Civil Government (Romans 13:1-7): Part 2 of 2

“Therefore one must be in subjection, not only to avoid God’s wrath but also for the sake of conscience. For because of this you also pay taxes, for the authorities are ministers of God, attending to this very thing. Pay to all what is owed to them: taxes to whom taxes are owed, revenue to whom revenue is owed, respect to whom respect is owed, honor to whom honor is owed” (Romans 13:5-7, ESV).

 

Conscientious Taxpayers

 

“Therefore” [διό], summing up the argument, beyond the practical expediency of avoiding God’s “wrath” [ὀργή] via governmental reprisals, Paul adds “conscience” [συνείδησις] (cf. 2:15). With knowledge of the divine will, the conscience is an added guide to help the law-abiding Christian live compliantly (cf. 9:1),¹ in favor with both God and fellow human beings (14:18; cf. 12:17-18).²

 

Seeing that governing authorities are “ministers [λειτουργοί]³ of God,” the paying of “taxes” and “revenue,” whether “direct taxes” [φόρος] or “indirect taxes” [τέλος],⁴ is a divinely sanctioned obligation (cf. Matt. 17:25; 22:15-21; Mark 12:13-17; Luke 20:20-25). This also demonstrates “respect”⁵ and “honor,”⁶ if not for a particular person holding the office, at least for the office itself (cf. Prov. 24:21-22; 1 Pet. 2:17).

 

Paul has been describing government as it should be, so Christian submission is enjoined accordingly. The sovereignty and supremacy of God are understood, having ordained the right, function, authority, and purpose of government, which demands amenability. At the same time, the underlying assumption is that all human governments are subordinate to God. “This means, then, that Christians may continue to ‘submit’ to a particular government (acknowledging their subordination to it generally) even as they, in obedience to a ‘higher’ authority, refuse to do, in a given instance, what that government requires.”⁷

 

Participatory Selectivism

 

Concerning the extent of a Christian’s involvement in secular government, by merely paying taxes, as divinely enjoined, one cannot escape some level of participation. Paul even availed himself of his own civil rights as a Roman citizen (Acts 16:37; 22:24-29; 25:9-12).

Between the extremes of (a) total passivism (noninvolvement) and (b) unrestricted activism is (c) participatory selectivism, meaning each Christian must determine where he or she stands along the lengthy spectrum of civic duty, support, and engagement (cf. 14:4, 22). Even the pacifism of a conscientious objector, refusing to actively engage in military conflict, cannot escape this reality.⁸ There were many governing officials (incl. military) in the NT who were prospects for the gospel,⁹ a number of whom were converted to Christ (albeit with no further details provided). A member of the church named Erastus in the Roman colony of Corinth served the local government as “the steward of the city” [ὁ οἰκονόμος τῆς πόλεως] (16:23b).¹⁰ 

 

--Kevin L. Moore

 

Endnotes:

     ¹ See also Acts 23:1; 24:16; 1 Cor. 8:7-12; 10:25-29; 2 Cor. 1:12; 4:2; 5:11; 1 Tim. 1:19; 3:9; 2 Tim. 1:3.

     ² See also 1 Sam. 2:26; Prov. 3:4; Luke 2:52; 2 Cor. 8:21; cf. 1 Tim. 4:16.

     ³ This term is also used in 15:16; Phil. 2:25; Heb. 1:7; 8:2, alluding to service to the Lord.

     ⁴ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:678; D. J. Moo, Romans 805.

     ⁵ Lit. “fear” [φόβος] (ASV, NASB95, N/KJV), but apparently in a different sense than v. 3.

     ⁶ Cf. Acts 24:10; 25:8; 26:1-3, 25. Michael the archangel, with moderation and restraint, “did not dare bring against [the devil] an abusive judgment, but said, ‘The Lord rebuke you!’” (Jude 9). He respectfully left the judgment to the Lord (cf. Zech. 3:1-2; 2 Pet. 2:11).

     ⁷ D. J. Moo, Romans 808-809.

     ⁸ Therefore, “a Christian is not guilty of wrongdoing in upholding and participating in the affairs of government, whether as a voter, a taxpayer, an office holder, a policeman, or a soldier. In fact, there is no possibility that you can avoid all responsibility for government. Those who refuse to vote are simply supporting the stronger party. By saying ‘no’ to the military you are saying ‘yes’ to the enemy. There is simply no way to be ‘completely neutral’” (G. Goldman, “The Christian and His Government” 1).

     ⁹ Acts 10:1-48; 13:6-12; 16:27-34; 17:22, 34; 24:24-25; 26:1-29; 28:16; Phil. 1:13; 4:22; cf. Matt. 8:5-13; Luke 3:14; 7:1-10.

     ¹⁰ The name Erastus occurs in the NT three times in association with Paul, Timothy, and the Corinth church (Acts 19:21-22; Rom. 16:23; 2 Tim. 4:20). Among the ruins of ancient Corinth, the “Erastus Stone” (discovered in 1929) documents Erastus having laid the pavement stone at his own expense in return for the honor of the office of aedile. In Rome the office of aedile, which included the maintenance of public buildings and regulating public festivals, was more prestigious during the Republic but lost much of its importance during and after the reign of Augustus. In the Empire-era the authority and responsibilities of this position varied in the different cities and colonies.

 

Related Posts: Duty to Government Part 1

 

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The Christian’s Duty to Civil Government (Romans 13:1-7): Part 1 of 2

The section of Romans we call chap. 13 does not abruptly appear out of nowhere but is a practical extension of the preceding discourse. Personal vengeance and retaliation are prohibited in chap. 12, while the proper avenue of opposing evil and injustice is addressed in this chapter, “the most notable passage in the NT on Christian civic responsibility.”¹ The theme of “revenge” and “retribution” (12:19) is the connecting link between chaps. 12–13, where “Paul continues to expound the meaning of this Christian love (agapē) in terms of what is ‘due’ to all men; and he begins with the realm of impersonal institutions where the relevance of the commandment to love is most difficult to see or to apply.”²

Submission to Civil Authorities

“Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God. Therefore whoever resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgment. For rulers are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. Would you have no fear of the one who is in authority? Then do what is good, and you will receive his approval, for he is God’s servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword in vain. For he is the servant of God, an avenger who carries out God’s wrath on the wrongdoer” (Romans 13:1-4, ESV).

What Paul says in these verses is parallel to what he teaches elsewhere (1 Tim. 2:1-2; Tit. 3:1-2) and comparable to Peter’s instructions (1 Pet. 2:13-17) and what Jesus himself taught (Matt. 22:15-22; Mark 12:13-17; Luke 20:20-26). Throughout his evangelistic career Paul had many opportunities to implement these guidelines.³

The “authorities” [ἐξουσίαις] and “rulers” [ἄρχοντες] alluded to here are not angelic or demonic or cosmic forces (8:28)⁴ but contextually the civil “governing authorities,”⁵ and “the ones [presently] existing” [αἱ οὖσαι] (v. 1) are, to Paul’s immediate readership, the ruling powers of Rome. In a broader sense they would include the Roman emperor,⁶ local monarchs,⁷ military leaders,⁸ and other governing officials like the asiarchs in Ephesus (Acts 19:31), the magistrates in Philippi (Acts 16:20-38), the politarchs in Thessalonica (Acts 17:6), the proconsuls in Cyprus and Achaia (Acts 13:7; 18:12), and the legates of Judea (Luke 20:20; Acts 23:24). A number of these Paul faced in the course of his ministry, including the emperor Nero (Acts 25:12; 27:24).

Divine Sovereignty

Note the heavy emphasis in these opening verses on what God purposes and accomplishes. The genitival θεοῦ occurs six times in vv. 1-6 (“from God,” “by God,” “of God”). Civil government, whose very existence derives from the Supreme Ruler of the universe, is “instituted” (perfect participial form of τάσσω – in the past and continuing in the present), according to divine decree,⁹ to function as God’s “servant” [διάκονος], although nothing is said here about the moral character of any particular authority figure or type of government.¹⁰ To defiantly “resist” or “oppose” [ἀντιτάσσω]¹¹ civil governing authorities is to “withstand” or “oppose” [ἀνθίστημι] (cf. 9:19)¹² a divine “ordinance” [διαταγή]¹³ (“what God has appointed”) and incur “judgment” [κρίμα], not only that of secular rulers (vv. 3-4)¹⁴ but of God (v. 2a; cf. 2:2, 3; 5:16; 11:33).¹⁵

Submit or Obey?

The charge is to “be subject” or “submit” [ὑποτάσσω] (vv. 1, 5), i.e., willingly sub-order oneself in deference to another.¹⁶ Paul does not explicitly say here to “obey” [ὑπακούω] (as in 6:12, 16, 17; 10:16), perhaps because secular governments may issue laws that violate biblical principles, with which Christians cannot comply (cf. 12:2, 9). Nevertheless, we humbly strive to “live peaceably with all” and “overcome evil with good” (12:14-21).¹⁷ This is the opposite of how others have rebelled and attempted to resist governing powers, often with devastating consequences unfavorable to the Lord’s cause.¹⁸ As a general rule, therefore, God expects his people to submit to the laws of the land in which they live. The obvious exceptions are when governments prohibit what is right, enjoin what is wrong, or try to compel believers to compromise or disobey God’s word (cf. Acts 4:18-20; 5:29; Rev. 14:6-13). Otherwise, we prayerfully live in subjection to civil government so that the spread and impact of the Christian faith is unhindered (cf. 1 Thess. 4:11-12; 1 Tim. 2:1-4). 

The issues here apply to “every person,” presumably both Christian and non-Christian, seeing that everyone is accountable to civil authority and the stated expectations are from the One who is Lord of all (10:12; cf. 1:5, 18-20), albeit currently addressed to a Christian audience. It is interesting to note that reference to “the Lord Jesus Christ” is absent from this chapter until the final verse. While followers of Jesus are not of the world and our true citizenship is heavenly, we still live in the world with accompanying civic responsibilities.¹⁹ “Paul seems to envisage two distinct spheres of service to God: the civil and the spiritual; one deals with the preservation of law and order in society, the other with the salvation and sanctification of individuals in the church.”²⁰

Punitive Actions

The case that “rulers are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad” is general rather than absolute (cf. 1 Pet. 3:13-17).²¹ Whether a secular government is favorable, tolerant, or hostile towards Christianity, in the end the faithful ones of God have the advantage (cf. 8:28), which is the essential message of the book of Revelation. Nevertheless, at the time of writing the brethren in Rome were yet to experience the brutal hostilities that would occur later in Nero’s reign. To “bear the sword” (v. 4), as a deterrent to wrongdoing, is an apparent allusion to capital punishment (cf. Tacitus, Histories 3.68),²² which Paul himself was willing to undergo if found guilty (Acts 25:10-11). The government’s punitive actions against evildoers serve as an extension of divine “wrath” [ὀργή] (cf. 1:18; 2:5, 8; 3:5; 9:22).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ E. F. Harrison, “Romans,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary 10:136.

     ² J. A. T. Robinson, Wrestling with Romans 135. 

     ³ Acts 13:6-12; 16:19-40; 17:22-34; 18:12-16; 19:30-31; 21:31–26:32; 28:16, 30-31; Phil. 1:12-13; 4:22.

     ⁴ Eph. 2:2; 6:12; Col. 1:16; 2:10, 15; cf. Eph. 1:21; 3:10; 1 Pet. 3:22.

     ⁵ As in Luke 12:11; Acts 3:17; Tit. 3:1.

     ⁶ Matt. 22:17-21; Luke 2:1-3; Acts 25:8-12; 27:23-24; 1 Pet. 2:13, 17.

     ⁷ Matt. 2:1-9; 10:18; 14:1, 9; 17:25; Acts 12:1; 2 Cor. 11:32.

     ⁸ Matt. 8:5-13; Acts 10:1-33; 21:37-40; 22:24-30; 23:17-33; 27:1–28:15.

     ⁹ Cf. 2 Sam. 12:8; Prov. 8:15-16; Dan. 2:21; 4:17, 25, 32; 5:21.

     ¹⁰ Note, e.g., Ex. 9:16; Isa. 45:1; Jer. 25:9; 27:6; 43:10; Dan. 2:37; John 19:10-11.

     ¹¹ In the NT this verb is also used to describe God’s righteous opposition against human pride (Jas. 4:6; 1 Pet. 5:5), and human resistance to good (Acts 18:6) or evil (Jas. 5:6).

     ¹² Elsewhere in the NT Matt. 5:39; Luke 21:15; Acts 6:10; 13:8; Gal. 2:11; Eph. 6:13; 2 Tim. 3:8; 4:16; Jas. 4:7; 1 Pet. 5:9.

     ¹³ Elsewhere in the NT only Acts 7:53. On Paul’s use of the verbal διατάσσω (to “arrange” or “order”), see 1 Cor. 7:17; 9:14; 11:34; 16:1; Gal. 3:19; Tit. 1:5.

     ¹⁴ See also 1 Cor. 6:7; cf. Luke 23:39-41; 24:20.

     ¹⁵ See C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:664, suggesting that “the reference is not to be limited to the final judgment” (n.1).

     ¹⁶ Compare Rom. 8:7, 20; 10:3; cf. Luke 2:51; 10:17, 20; 1 Cor. 14:32, 34; 15:27-28; 16:16; Eph. 1:22; 5:21, 24; Phil. 3:21; Col. 3:18; Tit. 2:5, 9; 3:1; Heb. 2:5, 8, 9; Jas. 4:7; 1 Pet. 2:13, 18; 3:1, 5, 22; 5:5. “To submit is to recognize one’s subordinate place in a hierarchy, to acknowledge as a general rule that certain people or institutions have ‘authority’ over us” (D. J. Moo, Romans 797). 

     ¹⁷ Cf. Matt. 5:25-26, 38-48; 22:21; 26:52; 27:12-14; John 18:36. 

     ¹⁸ Cf. Matt. 11:12; Mark 15:7; Luke 21:20; 23:1-2, 18-25; John 19:12-15; Acts 5:36-37. The Lord’s followers are “not to identify with any revolutionary movement advocating rebellion against Rome” (E. F. Harrison, “Romans,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary 10:136).

     ¹⁹ John 14:1-6; 15:19; 17:14-16; 1 Cor. 5:9-10; Phil. 3:20.

     ²⁰ R. Mohrlang, Romans 196.

     ²¹ While Jesus was condemned and executed by governing authorities, God used this to accomplish his good purpose (Rom. 3:25; 5:6-11, 18; 6:3-10). 

     ²² This may also include “military power” (C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:677).

 

Related Posts: Rom 12:9-21, Duty to Gov't (Rom 13:1-7): Part 2

 

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Christian Conduct in an Evil World (Romans 12:9-21)

“Let love be genuine. Abhor what is evil; hold fast to what is good. Love one another with brotherly affection. Outdo one another in showing honor. Do not be slothful in zeal, be fervent in spirit, serve the Lord. Rejoice in hope, be patient in tribulation, be constant in prayer. Contribute to the needs of the saints and seek to show hospitality” (Romans 12:9-13, ESV). 

The Action of Love

Up to this point in the letter the term ἀγάπη (“love”) has been used to describe the love of God and Christ toward us (5:5, 8; 8:35, 39); now the focus is on our love for others (also 13:10; 14:15).¹ “Love is primary, but if it is not sincere, it is not real love but only pretense. When one recalls that Paul paused in his discussion of spiritual gifts to inject a chapter on love (1 Cor 13), it is altogether fitting that he should follow his presentation of spiritual gifts here in Romans with the same emphasis. The whole of the believer’s conduct, in fact, should be bathed in love.”² Hence, if love counts for anything, it is to be “genuine” [ἀνυπόκριτος], “unfeigned,” “without hypocrisy.”³

There are no finite verbs in vv. 10-13, only present tense participles employed as imperatives: “abhorring,” “clinging,” “esteeming,” “being fervent,” “serving,” “rejoicing,” “enduring,” “persevering,” “contributing,” “pursuing.”⁴ This may reflect Paul’s rabbinic training in communicating rules of conduct and perhaps “goes back to a Semitic source originating in very primitive Christian circles. These verses present a very interesting picture of early Christian life, but call for little explanation; they illustrate various aspects of the general command of love …”⁵

By abhorring “evil” and embracing “good,” true love is demonstrated because a profession of love that “does not discriminate good and bad, is both worthless and feigned. God loves us but hates all sin.”⁶ Within God’s family we are to share “brotherly affection” [φιλαδελφία].⁷ “The instinctive craving for superiority is, within the dominant sentiment, so redirected that, instead of desiring superiority for himself, a man desires his associates to excel …. Personal vanity is excluded by a high estimate of the worth of others, and a readiness to undertake the humblest service.”⁸ This leads to “esteeming” [προηγούμενοι] one another in “honor” [τιμή] (cf. 13:7), corresponding to divine honor (cf. 2:7, 10; 9:21), which is especially meaningful and impactful in an honor-shame culture like the first-century Roman world.⁹

Christians are not to be timid or lazy in “zeal” or “diligence” [σπουδή] (cf. v. 8),¹⁰ but “fervent in spirit” [τῷ πνεύματι ζέοντες] (cf. 1:9; 7:6),¹¹ and “serve” the Lord (as slaves) [δουλεύοντες] (cf. 6:6; 7:6, 25; 9:12; 14:18; 16:18).¹² “Rejoice in hope” (cf. 5:2; 8:20-24; 15:4, 13), “be patient in tribulation” (cf. 5:3-5; 8:18),¹³ “be constant in prayer” (cf. 1:10; 15:30). “Christian rejoicing, which endures through affliction, is rooted in the Christian hope of what God will do, and at all times the Christian looks beyond his immediate environment to God in prayer.”¹⁴

Still employing present tense participles, Paul’s next directive concerns the continual “sharing” or “contributing” [κοινωνοῦντες] to the needs of the saints, and continual “pursuing” [διώκοντες]¹⁵ hospitality. The word translated “hospitality” [φιλοξενία] is a compound word in Greek,¹⁶ conveying the basic sense of “friend” [φίλος] of “a stranger” [ξένος]. Due to the scarceness and poor conditions of public lodging in antiquity, providing visitors with food and shelter under one’s own roof was a virtual necessity. The practice was deeply rooted in ancient society, highly valued, and even viewed as an obligation. The large number of itinerant evangelists and other Christian travelers made this particularly relevant to the early church. NT writers consistently remind their readers of this duty,¹⁷ according to “standards much more widely recognized and lauded.”¹⁸ The prospect of receiving and serving Christ himself (Matt. 10:40; 25:31-45) was of far greater significance than the secular ideas of reciprocity or honor and shame.

Paul is calling upon his readers to “put into practice the love and concern for one another that he has mentioned earlier (v. 10) …. to have fellowship with, to participate in, the ‘needs’ of the saints. These ‘needs’ are material ones: food, clothing, and shelter … sharing of our material goods …. to go out of our way to welcome and provide for travelers.”¹⁹

Selfless Empathy and Humility

“Bless those who persecute you; bless and do not curse them. Rejoice with those who rejoice, weep with those who weep. Live in harmony with one another. Do not be haughty, but associate with the lowly. Never be wise in your own sight” (Romans 12:14-16).

The Greek term rendered “persecute” [διώκοντες] is the same word used in v. 13 for “pursuing,” although it is hard for English translation to make this connection. There is an apparent echo of the Lord’s directive, “But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Matt. 5:44), with added emphasis in the negative form.²⁰ From a Christian perspective the apostle is reminding his readers, “Even under persecution one should not allow himself to be so preoccupied with his own troubles that he becomes insensitive to the needs of others…. To share with others is never more meaningful than when one is hard pressed to find a sufficient supply for himself.”²¹

Particularly for the Roman saints these were fitting reminders considering what they would experience within the next seven-and-a-half years. On the night of 18th July 64 a fire will break out in Rome, and five days later at least three of the city’s fourteen divisions will be destroyed. Nero will then blame Christians for the disaster and instigate brutal hostilities against them that will last until his suicide 9th June 68 (cf. Tacitus, Annals 15.38-44; Suetonius, Life of Nero16.2).²²

Love shares both joy and suffering, requiring a humble disposition that exchanges prideful envy for genuine empathy (cf. 11:20; 1 Cor. 13:4-5). As everyone in the community puts the needs and interests of others before self, the inevitable result is “harmony with one another” (cf. 15:5).²³

Strive for Peace

“Repay no one evil for evil, but give thought to do what is honorable in the sight of all. If possible, so far as it depends on you, live peaceably with all. Beloved, never avenge yourselves, but leave it to the wrath of God, for it is written, ‘Vengeance is mine, I will repay, says the Lord.’ To the contrary, ‘if your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him something to drink; for by so doing you will heap burning coals on his head.’ Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good” (Romans 12:17-21).

With negative admonitions reinforced by their positive counterparts, further demonstrations of genuine love are listed.²⁴ It is implied here that living “peaceably²⁵ with all” (whether within or without the Christian community) is not always possible, nor does it always depend “on you.” But when it is possible and can be achieved with Christlike attitudes, words, and behavior, peaceable relations with everyone are to be pursued (cf. 1:7; 2:10; 3:17; 8:6; 14:17, 19). The theme of “revenge” and “retribution” is the connecting link to the next chapter, where “Paul continues to expound the meaning of this Christian love (agapē) in terms of what is ‘due’ to all men …”²⁶ 

Paul is discussing how a Christian is to react when wrongfully treated, overcoming evil with good, and in v. 20 he quotes Proverbs 25:21-22. If heaping coals of fire on someone’s head is a metaphoric description of vengeance or punishment (cf. Psa. 11:6; 140:10), this is to be left to God (v. 19; cf. 2 Thess. 1:8). In the meantime, we follow the teachings and example of Jesus in how we treat others and respond to their maltreatment (cf. Matt. 5:43-45; 7:12).27 In so doing we not only demonstrate the stark contrast between the ways of the world and the ways of Christ, we can more effectively trigger burning shame and remorse in the conscience of evildoers (cf. Prov. 15:1).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ R. Mohrlang, Romans 187. Later Paul alludes to “the love of the Spirit” (15:30).

     ² E. F. Harrison, “Romans” 132.

     ³ Cf. 2 Cor. 6:6; 1 Tim. 1:5; 2 Tim. 1:5; Jas. 3:17; 1 Pet. 1:22.

     ⁴ “Such are the marks of conduct which is not dictated by mere obedience to precept, but produced by the re-direction of instinctive energy within a dominant sentiment” (C. H. Dodd, Romans 198-99).

     ⁵ C. K. Barrett, Romans 239-40. 

     ⁶ J. A. Beet, Romans 338. 

     ⁷ In its metaphorical sense, this compound word does not appear to have been used prior to the NT era (C. K. Barrett, Romans 240). See also 1 Thess. 4:9; Heb. 13:1; 1 Pet. 1:22; 2 Pet. 1:7.

     ⁸ C. H. Dodd, Romans 198-99. 

     ⁹ See K. L. Moore, “Honor and Shame,” Moore Perspective (3 July 2019), <https://kmooreperspective.blogspot.com/2019/07/the-sociocultural-context-of-new_3.html>. 

     ¹⁰ Cf. 2 Cor. 7:11-12; 8:7-8, 16; Heb. 6:11; 2 Pet. 1:5.

     ¹¹ Cf. Acts 18:25. Reference here to “the [Holy] Spirit” (Amp, CEV, CSB, ISV) is less likely. See comments 1:4; 2:29.

     ¹² Matt. 6:24; Luke15:29; 16:13; John 8:33; Acts 7:7; 20:19; Gal. 4:8, 9, 25; 5:13; Eph. 6:7; Phil. 2:22; Col. 3:24; 1 Thess. 1:9; 1 Tim. 6:2; Tit. 3:3. 

     ¹³ “Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things” (1 Cor. 13:7). 

     ¹⁴ C. K. Barrett, Romans 240; cf. W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 362. 

     ¹⁵ This is the same word used in v. 14 but with a very different meaning. 

     ¹⁶ Cf. also Heb. 13:2, the only other occurrence of this word in the NT. The adj. φιλόξενος is found in 1 Tim. 3:2; Tit. 1:8; 1 Pet. 4:9.

     ¹⁷ Note, e.g., 1 Tim. 5:10; Heb. 13:2; 1 Pet. 4:9; 3 John 5-8; cf. also Acts 2:44-45; 4:35; 6:3; 20:34; 28:10; Eph. 4:28; Phil. 2:25; 4:16; Tit. 3:14; 1 John 3:17; Rev. 3:17. 

     ¹⁸ J. D. G. Dunn, Theology of Paul 677. Letters of recommendation helped open doors of hospitality for traveling Christians (Rom. 16:1-2; 1 Cor. 16:10-12; cf. Phil. 2:25-30; Col. 4:7-9; Eph. 6:21-22). “There are hints in the Pauline letters and elsewhere in the New Testament that ordinary Christians traveling to another city could already expect to find accommodation with ‘brothers,’ very likely following a custom established among diaspora Jews. Thus hospitality is already among the virtues of the Christian common life stressed in the traditional admonitions Paul includes in his letter to the Romans (12:13)” (W. A. Meeks, First Urban Christians 109, 230 n. 169). E. A. Judge comments further, “Security and hospitality when traveling had traditionally been the privilege of the powerful, who had relied upon a network of patronage and friendship, created by wealth. The letters of recommendation disclose the fact that these domestic advantages were now extended to the whole household of faith, who are accepted on trust, though complete strangers” (The Conversion of Rome 7).

     ¹⁹ D. J. Moo, Romans 779-80. Jesus and his immediate disciples were able to devote full attention to spiritual service because of the benevolent assistance of others (Matt. 10:9-14; 26:17-19; Mark 9:28, 33; Luke 8:3; 10:4-8; 19:5; 24:28-29; Acts 1:13). While financial contributions were still necessary (1 Cor. 9:4-14; 2 Cor. 11:7-9), there were many other ways God’s servants could be supported (cf. Rom. 12:4-13; Gal. 6:16). Paul clearly relied on the hospitality and provision of his fellow-Christians (Acts 9:19; 16:15, 34; 18:1-3; 20:11; 21:4, 7-10, 16-17; 28:13-14; 24:23; Rom. 15:24; 16:2, 23; 1 Cor. 16:6; Gal. 1:18; Philem. 22; 2 Tim. 1:16-18; cf. 2 Tim. 4:13). Leadership in the church was also predicated upon being hospitable (1 Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:8). On the negative side, see Luke 9:51-55; 2 John 7-11; 3 John 9-11. 

     ²⁰ H. C. G. Moule, Romans 338; W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 363.

     ²¹ E. F. Harrison, “Romans” 133. 

     ²² The question is whether the persecution began immediately or took about a year to actuate; the excesses of these hostilities appear to have been diminishing by 67 (see J. Murphy-O’Connor, Paul: A Critical Life 368-71; J. B. Polhill, Paul and His Letters 438-40). According to tradition both Paul and Peter were executed during the Neronian persecution. See Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.1.3; 2.25.1-8; I Clement 5.1-7; the Acts of Paul; the Acts of Peter; John Chrysostom, Oppugnatores Vitae Monasticae 1.3.

     ²³ 1 Cor. 1:10; 8:1, 13; 10:24, 33; 13:1-13; 16:14; 2 Cor. 13:11; Eph. 4:1-3; Phil. 1:27–2:8; 4:2. 

     ²⁴ Compare Matt. 5:43-44; 1 Cor. 13:5-6; 1 Thess. 5:15; 1 Pet. 3:9.

     ²⁵ On the verbal εἰρηνεύω, see also Mark 9:50; 2 Cor. 13:11; 1 Thess. 5:13. The noun form εἰρήνη is much more prolific (92 times in the NT; 43 in Paul).

     ²⁶ J. A. T. Robinson, Wrestling with Romans 135. 

     ²⁷ Jesus brings peace to and among the receptive and compliant (John 14:27; 16:33) but the opposite to those who resist his authority and teaching (Matt. 10:34-36). When we strive to live like Christ, therefore, some folks are provoked to wrath (cf. John 15:18-20).

Related Posts: Responsibility to Government (Rom 13:1-7): Part 1

 

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Spiritual Service in Christ’s Body (Romans 12:3-8): Part 2 of 2

“Having gifts that differ according to the grace given to us, let us use them … if service, in our serving; the one who teaches, in his teaching; the one who exhorts, in his exhortation; the one who contributes, in generosity; the one who leads, with zeal; the one who does acts of mercy, with cheerfulness”  (Rom. 12:6-8, ESV).

The Gift of Serving

Besides prophecy (see Part 1), the other gifts distributed among the body of believers are non-miraculous and include “serving” [διακονία] (cf. 11:13; 15:31), a broad category involving benevolent assistance,¹ hospitality,² and spiritual service.³ Every Christian ought to be able to serve in some capacity, as he or she continues to grow in various aspects of ministerial activity.

The Gift of Teaching

There is also the gift of “teaching” [διδάσκω] (cf. 2:21). In a sense all Christians teach by way of example (1:8; 16:19),⁴ open confession of faith (10:9-10),⁵ defending the faith (1:14-16; 16:17),⁶ and evangelism (10:14-15),⁷ occasioning the rebuke of some, “For though by this time you ought to be teachers …” (Heb. 5:12). However, in another sense those gifted as communicators of God’s word have a special function in the church (cf. 1 Cor. 12:29; Jas. 3:1) and ought to develop and utilize their God-given teaching talents (cf. Eph. 4:11).

The Gift of Exhorting

Another gift is “exhortation” or “exhorting” [παρακαλέω] (cf. v. 1; 15:30; 16:17), a verb appearing 109 times in the Greek NT (54 in Paul’s writings), with various shades of meaning, from “exhorting” and “appealing” to “encouraging” and “consoling,” exercised according to applicable needs and circumstances.

The Gift of Giving

Next concerns one who “contributes” or the gift of “giving” [μεταδίδωμι] (cf. 1:11), done in “generosity” [ἁπλότης], understood in the sense of (a) “simplicity, sincerity, uprightness, frankness,”⁸ or (b) “generosity, liberality”⁹ (BAGD 85-86). The former would apply to the attitude and perhaps manner of giving, irrespective of monetary means (cf. 2 Cor. 8:2-5), while the latter would pertain to the amount, implying disposable income (cf. Phil. 4:15-18). Both ideas are relevant to the varied economic situations of Paul’s readership. 

The Gift of Leading

To be “leading” [προΐστημι] or “one who leads” is a gift to the church, whether as part of a qualified eldership (1 Tim. 3:4-12; 5:17) or otherwise engaged in church leadership (1 Thess. 5:12; Tit. 3:8, 14). This gift is to be employed with “zeal” or “diligence” [σπουδή] (cf. v. 11), implying determined effort. 

Unlike Paul’s letter to the Philippi saints, there is no mention of “overseers and deacons” in his letter to the Romans. Whether or not they had scripturally qualified and officially appointed congregational leaders at this time cannot be confirmed. Near the end of the first century, the churches at Rome and Corinth were each governed by a plurality of elders, and at Rome there were at least three about whom we have record: Linus, Anacletus, and Clement.¹⁰ Around AD 95-96 Clement wrote a letter to the Corinthians on behalf of the Roman brethren, clearly showing that local churches were governed by a plurality of overseers (cf. I Clement 42:4; 44:1-2), with no distinction between “bishops” and “elders” as developed later. 

The biblical design for church leadership is for each autonomous congregation to be overseen and directed by a plurality of qualified men serving as spiritual shepherds of the local flock (Acts 14:23; 1 Tim. 3:1-7).¹¹ Congregational leadership in the absence of qualified overseers will be addressed in a separate post.

The Gift of Mercy

Another gift in the Christian community is “one who does acts of mercy” or “showing mercy” [ἐλεάω] (cf. 9:15-18; 11:30-32), the only time Paul uses this verb of people. This would include “any act of mercy toward others, such as visiting the sick, caring for the elderly or disabled, and providing for the poor.”¹² Demonstrations of merciful kindness are to be done with the attitude of “cheerfulness” [ἱλαρότης], cognate with the adj. “cheerful” [ἱλαρός] (2 Cor. 9:7). 

Conclusion

Within any given community of believers, “Christian ‘maturity’ … is thus not ‘sameness’ or ‘uniformity’ but the performing of one’s function within the context of the life of the organism, the church which is the body of Christ.”¹³

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Acts 6:1; 11:29; 12:25; Rom. 15:31; 2 Cor. 8:4; 9:1, 12-13

     ² Luke 10:40; cf. Rom. 12:13. See K. L. Moore, “Hospitality,” Moore Perspective (7 Aug. 2019), <Link>. 

     ³ Acts 1:17, 25; 6:4; 20:24; 21:19; Rom. 11:13; 1 Cor. 12:5; 16:17; 2 Cor. 3:8, 9; 4:1; 5:18; 6:3-4; 11:8; Eph. 4:12, 17; 1 Tim. 1:12; 2 Tim. 4:5, 11

     ⁴ Matt. 5:13-16; Rom. 16:19; 1 Tim. 3:7; 4:12, 15; 5:25; 1 Pet. 2:11-12.

     ⁵ Matt. 10:32; Heb. 4:14; 10:23.

     ⁶ 1 Pet. 3:15; Jude 3.

     ⁷ Matt. 28:18-20; 2 Cor. 5:17-21.

     ⁸ 2 Cor. 1:12; 11:3; Eph. 6:5; Col. 3:22.

     ⁹ 2 Cor. 8:2; 9:11, 13. 

     ¹⁰ Cf. Phil. 4:3; 2 Tim. 4:21. Later historians attempted to trace a succession of bishops back to Peter in Rome, but there are discrepancies as to the correct order of this alleged succession, whether it was Linus who followed Peter, who was then succeeded by Anacletus and then Clement (cf. Irenaeus, Augustine), or whether it was Clement who immediately followed Peter (cf. Tertullian, Jerome). This is an example of a distorted concept of church organization being read back into history at a time when no such hierarchy existed. Clement, Linus, and Anacletus were all “bishops” (i.e., overseers or elders) who were contemporary with each other. See F. W. Mattox, The Eternal Kingdom 56-59, 109-110; B. Howell, The Fall from Servant to Master 106-110.

     ¹¹ See K. L. Moore, “Qualifications of Elders (Part 1),” Moore Perspective (16 June 2021), <Link>, and accompanying Links.

     ¹² D. J. Moo, Romans 769. 

     ¹³ M. R. Weed, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians LWC 11:159.

Related Posts: Spiritual Service (Rom 12:3-8): Part 1, Romans 12:9-21

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