Geographical Confusion: the Land of Demon-Possessed Pigs?

Fairly early in his ministry Jesus and his twelve disciples ventured to the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee and encountered a Legion of demons and their reluctant hosts.¹ All three Synoptic Gospels report this incident in great detail but are confusingly obscure about the specific geographical location (Matt. 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-40). Was it the land of the Gadarenes or the Gerasenes or the Gergesenes? While the townships of Gadara [Γάδαρα], Gerasa [Γέρασα], and Gergesa [Γέργεσα] are assumed, these communities were considerable distances apart in various proximities to the Sea of Galilee.

Textual Variation²

Variant readings among extant manuscripts occur in each Synoptic account. In Matthew 8:28 most manuscripts read “Gergesenes,”³ although the weight of textual evidence supports “Gadarenes,”⁴ while a number of ancient versions favor “Gerasenes.”⁵ In Mark 5:1 and Luke 8:26 and 37 the majority of manuscripts read “Gadarenes,”⁶ yet  “Gerasenes” is better supported by the weight of textual evidence,⁷ and “Gergesenes” is another variant reading.⁸

Geographical Probability

Gadara (modern-day Umm Qais in NW Jordan) was about 6 miles (9.6 km) from the Sea of Galilee, and Gerasa (modern-day Jerash in N. Jordan) was approximately 37 miles (60 km) away. Closer to the coast was Gergesa, which would explain why Origen (ca. 184-253), Eusebius (ca. 260-339), and later copyists preferred this particular location.⁹ Archaeologically identified as the lakeside village of El Kursi (in Israeli controlled Golan Heights), it more readily corresponds to the Gospel accounts: “they sailed down” to this area (Luke 8:26) and were encountered “immediately” once exiting the boat (Mark 5:2). The site also has nearby tombs and a steep bank descending to the shore (Matt. 8:28, 32; Mark 5:2-5, 13; Luke 8:27, 33).¹⁰

Why the Geographical Confusion?

The incident occurred in the greater Decapolis region (Mark 5:20), where both Gadara and Gerasa were among the league of ten cities (Pliny, Natural History 5.16). None of the Synoptic authors names a particular city. They each speak of the χώρα (“country” or “region”) of a much broader territory incorporating and surrounding these municipalities, where the Gadarene, Gerasene, and Gergesene peoples all lived.

Although Gerasa was the farthest away from the sea, it was the largest and better known.¹¹ Mark and Luke both allude to “the country of the Gerasenes” as a geographical marker that would have been more familiar to their respective non-Jewish audiences living far away and unacquainted with the area. While Gadara was smaller and lesser known, Matthew writes to a Jewish audience somewhat familiar with the region, so he can be more defined with reference to the Gadarenes. In fact, Josephus reports that this territory reached to the “frontier” or “coast” of the water boundary (Life 9.42). And if variant readings are afforded any level of credence, all three Synoptic authors would be even more precise than most modern versions indicate.

Conclusion

At first glance the textual, intertextual, and geographical discrepancies give the appearance of inaccuracy and disharmony among the Synoptics. However, geographical specificity does not seem to be the intent of the respective authors. The general area on the eastern coast of the Sea of Galilee in mid-west Decapolis is clearly in view (Mark 5:13, 20). Alert readers recognize that Jesus is venturing into predominantly Gentile territory and thus laying the groundwork for his eventual call to make disciples of all nations.¹²

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Matthew records two demoniacs, one of whom would have been the more dominant or notorious figure who became the Lord’s emissary, singularly featured in the accounts of Mark and Luke. See K. L. Moore, “Synoptic Confusion: Matthew’s ‘Two’ vs. Mark and Luke’s ‘One’?” Moore Perspective (2 Jan. 2019), <Link>.

     ² See P. W. Comfort, A Commentary on the Manuscripts and Text of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2015): 141, 183-84, 217-18; B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, 2nd ed. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994): 18-19, 72, 121. 

     ³ The Byzantine Majority Text and Textus Receptus; cf. Darby, JUB, LSV, N/KJV, WEB, YLT.

     ⁴ NA²⁷ and UBS⁵; cf. ASV, CSB, ESV, NAB, NASB, NET, NIV, NLT, N/RSV.

     ⁵ Latin Vulgata Clementina; cf. Douay-Rheims, ISV, Finnish Bible (1776), Latvian NT. This is probably a case of scribal harmonization with the parallel accounts in Mark and Luke.

     ⁶ The Byzantine Majority Text and Textus Receptus; cf. Darby, JUB, LSV, N/KJV, WEB, YLT.

     ⁷ NA²⁷ and UBS⁵; cf. ASV, CSB, Douay-Rheims, ESV, ISV, NAB, NASB, NET, NIV, NLT, N/RSV.

     ⁸ Fourth/fifth-century Codex Washingtonianus.

     ⁹ Origin, Commentary on John 6.24; Eusebius, Onomasticon 73.14. See T. J. Baarda, “Gadarenes, Gerasenes, Gergesenes and the ‘Diatessaron’ Traditions,” in E. E. Ellis and M. E. Wilcox, eds., Neotestamentica et Semitica: Studies in honour of Matthew Black (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1969): 181-197.

     ¹⁰ C. A. Evans and S. E. Porter, eds., Dictionary of New Testament Backgrounds (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000): 97; Joel Marcus, Mark 1–8 AYB (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008): 27:342; John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008): 166-168; W. Sanday, Sacred Sites of the Gospels (Oxford: Clarendon, 1903): 27; Vassilios Tzaferis, “A Pilgrimage to the Site of the Swine Miracle,” BAR 15 (1989): 48. Thanks to the research of Colt Mahana, “Healing of the Gerasene Demoniac (Mark 5:1-20),” FHU BIB 515: Synoptic Gospels (9 April 2022): 1-15.

     ¹¹ D. M. Doriani, “Matthew,” in I. M. Duguid, J. M. Hamilton, Jr., and J. Sklar, eds., ESV Expository Commentary (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2021): 8:143 n.140; C. S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2014): 139.

     ¹² See K. L. Moore, “Beyond the Jordan: an Ethnogeographical Study,” Moore Perspective (9 June 2021), <Link>.

Addendum:

In the early 1980s the Sea of Galilee’s water levels were low, exposing the ancient harbor of the lakeside village of El Kursi, one of fourteen harbors around the lake. A fish tank was also discovered. The water levels rose in the mid-1980s. Today a thick bamboo forest makes it inaccessible by land but it can be accessed by water and under water. The surrounding topography fits the biblical account, with a steep slope and nearby tombs. Craig E. Evans and Scott Stripling, “Did the Swine drown at Gergesa? Another Look at Mark 5:1 in Light of Text and Topography,” ETS 76th Annual Meeting (11 Nov. 2024), San Diego, CA.

Related Posts: Legion of Demons, Herd of Swine, Unlikely Missionary, 2000 Pigs: Historical Relavence

 

Image credit: adapted from <https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-the-Decapolis-region_fig1_30843902>

Paul’s Trek from Athens to Corinth

Modern roads and motorized vehicles make it possible to travel from the Greek city of Athens to the ruins of ancient Corinth in about an hour. But in Paul’s day it was not as convenient. Back then there were two options. One could walk about 12 kilometers (7.4 miles) from Athens to the seaport of Piraeus, board a ship and sail 70 nautical kilometers (38 nautical miles) westward across the Saronic Gulf to Corinth’s southeast seaport of Cenchrea, then walk about 9 kilometers (6.5 miles) to the city. It would have taken about half a day of traveling, not counting the additional time constraints involved in the process.¹ The other option was to journey across the narrow isthmus of land, a distance of approximately 83 kilometers (52 miles) that would have taken about two and a half days by foot. 

The biblical record simply reports that Paul left Athens and “came to Corinth” (Acts 18:1). No specifics are given about the route he took or his mode of transport. While he did eventually leave by sea (Acts 18:18), nothing definitive can be concluded about the circumstances of his arrival. 

The Likelihood of Land Travel

Luke tends to be explicit whenever Paul journeyed by sea;² otherwise land travel is assumed. In fact, it seems that when Paul was afforded the opportunity, he preferred land travel over sea travel (Acts 20:13-14).

It is sometimes argued that the sea route from Athens to Corinth would have been more likely for Paul, since the land route was rather dangerous, particularly the mountainous region of the Sceironian Rocks near Megara. This area was named after Sceiron, the mythological bandit who robbed and killed travelers before he himself was killed by king Theseus. Apparently this section of road was notorious for outlaw activity (cf. Alciphron, Letter 3.34).³

The road conditions were also somewhat precarious. Strabo reports:

After Crommyon, and situated above Attica, are the Sceironian Rocks. They leave no room for a road along the sea, but the road from the Isthmus to Megara and Attica passes above them. However, the road approaches so close to the rocks that in many places it passes along the edge of precipices, because the mountain situated above them is both lofty and impracticable for roads. (Geography 9.3.1)⁴

It may be of interest to note that the second-century geographer Pausanius describes his travels from Athens to Corinth by foot (Descriptions of Greece 1.36.3-44.10). Nevertheless, Paul later informs the brethren at Corinth of the many challenges he faced in his missionary work, including near-death experiences, “dangers of robbers,” “dangers in the wilderness,” “sleeplessness … hunger and thirst … cold …” (2 Cor. 11:23, 26, 27).⁵ His trek from Athens to Corinth in (late) autumn of the year 50 was one of the rare trips Paul made alone, and these descriptions would certainly fit the land route.

Arrival in Corinth

It appears that Paul arrived in Corinth with depleted funds, indicated by the fact he immediately started making tents with Aquila and Priscilla for his livelihood (Acts 18:2-3). This enabled him to preach to the Corinthians “free of charge” until financial support from Macedonian churches arrived with Silas and Timothy (Acts 18:5; 2 Cor. 11:7-9). Had Paul spent all his money on sea fare? Had he been robbed along the way? Or would the lack of funds have required him to make the journey to Corinth on foot?

If Paul had traveled by land, he would have entered the city from the north along the Lechaeum road that leads to the city-center’s agora or forum. This would have been most conducive to promptly encountering fellow-tentmakers Aquila and Priscilla, locating the Jewish synagogue, and identifying a location for baptizing initial converts (Acts 18:1-8; 1 Cor. 1:14-16).⁶

Conclusion

Knowing exactly how Paul ended up in Corinth is not a matter of eternal consequence, and no biblical doctrine is affected either way. But for Pauline studies and Bible history, geography, and chronology geeks like me, it is a matter of keen interest. Although short of provable, it seems that a stronger case can be made for the land route taken by Paul from Athens to Corinth as he continued his second major missionary campaign.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ “There were no passenger vessels sailing regular schedules in Paul’s day. Cargo ships took passengers on a space available basis. The procedure is described by Philostratus in his Life of Apollonius of Tyana …. This vignette omits the haggling over the fare with a hard-eyed owner or his representative who was determined to get the maximum the market would bear. Presumably, maximum utilization of equipment was as much a concern then as it is today, but the ship’s departure had to await the coincidence of a favorable wind with favorable omens. Passengers, too, had to wait; they could not afford to go too far away because the vessel might sail at any moment” (Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, “On the Road and on the Sea with St. Paul: Traveling conditions in the first century,” Bible Review 1.2 [Summer 1985]: 38-47).

     ² Acts 13:4, 13; 14:26; 16:11; 17:14-15; 18:18-22; 20:3-6, 13-17, 38; 21:1-3, 6-8; 27:1–28:14. Possible exceptions are Acts 9:30 and 21:8.

     ³ Alciphron was a Greek sophist who composed a three-volume collection of fictional letters descriptive of various classes of people. His historical period is debated, with proposed dates ranging from the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD, though many believe he was a contemporary of the 2nd-century AD novelist Lucian. In a letter from Limustes to Thrasocydoemus he writes: “Hard pressed for the bare necessaries of life, I joined a band of Megarian brigands, who lie in wait for travelers near the Sceironian rocks; and since then I have gained a dishonest livelihood without working.”

     ⁴ Today tunnels have been carved through this mountain pass for safer travel.

     ⁵ Paul also mentions the “three times” he was shipwrecked and the night and day he spent in the deep (2 Cor. 11:25). While it is possible one of these shipwrecks occurred between Athens and Corinth, there is no explicit record of this alleged voyage, whereas at the time 2 Corinthians was written Luke reports no less than nine sea voyages Paul had taken. As far as sea travel is concerned, of the many trips Paul made, a prospective brief passage across the Saronic Gulf would have been one of the safer ones.

     ⁶ A stone lintel, inscribed “synagogue of the Hebrews” (albeit fragmentary), was discovered along the Lechaeum road. On the road’s east side before entering the agora are the remains of the ancient Fountain of Peirene, which in Paul’s day had plenty of water for public use.

Related Posts: Ancient Corinth, Chronology of Paul's Work in Corinth, My Family's Worship in Corinth

 

Image credit: http://www.doncronerblog.com/2017/03/greece.html

My Family’s Worship in Corinth

My family and I recently visited Greece. On Sunday we were in Loutraki, about 19 kilometers (12 miles) from the ruins of ancient Corinth. We self-toured the museum and the city’s ruins, highlighting the places and artifacts most relevant to the Bible.¹ Then we walked a couple hundred meters from the fenced-in site to find the Erastus stone. Located adjacent to the remains of the ancient theater, it is a long block of limestone with a Latin inscription that includes the name Erastus. The inscription documents Erastus having laid the pavement stone at his own expense in return for the honor of the office of aedile.²

The name Erastus occurs in the NT three times (Acts 19:21-22; Rom. 16:23; 2 Tim. 4:20) in association with Paul, Timothy, and the Corinth church. The apostle Paul, writing from Corinth, describes Erastus as ὁ οἰκονόμος τῆς πόλεως (lit. “the steward of the city”).³ It’s hard to ignore the apparent link between the biblical record of our brother Erastus, a city official in Corinth, and the archaeological evidence of Erastus, a city official in Corinth. 

For our worship that afternoon, we sat in a shaded area near the inscription, feeling as if we were in some way including Erastus and connecting with the first-century church in Corinth.  

Singing and the Lord’s Supper 

We sang, “We Shall Assemble on the Mountain,” “Amazing Grace,” and “Man of Sorrows.”

For the Lord’s Supper we read a passage Paul had written to the Christians in Corinth:

“Therefore, my beloved, flee from idolatry. I speak as to sensible ones, judge for yourselves what I say. The cup of blessing that we bless, is it not participation in the blood of Christ? The bread that we break, is it not participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Cor. 10:14-17).

After the Lord’s Supper we sang, “Jesus, Name Above All Names.”

The Bible Lesson:

Paul spent about 18 months in Corinth, working with Aquila, Priscilla, Silas, and Timothy, leaving behind an established community of Christians (Acts 18:1-18). A few years later he returned, and during the winter of 56-57 he and Tertius wrote the letter to the Romans wherein it is stated: “Gaius, the host of me and of the whole church, greets you. Erastus, the steward of the city, and our brother Quartus, greet you” (Rom. 16:22-23).

Apparently the church was meeting in Gaius’ house, which was large enough to host a sizeable group.⁴ It would have been a Roman-style house (domus), similar to what we saw in Pompeii, where the main foyer (atrium) had the capacity to accommodate a maximum of 30-50 people. 

The mid-first-century church at Corinth had many problems, at the heart of which was a lack of love. As Paul concludes the letter of First Corinthians, he gives this admonition: “Let all you do be done in love” (1 Cor. 16:14). Earlier in the letter he devoted a whole chapter to love, so let’s listen to these inspired words as Erastus and the other Christians in Corinth would have first heard them.

Having stressed the importance of love (1 Cor. 13:1-3), Paul then gives a description of love (vv. 3-8a):

Love is patient, not merely with circumstances but especially with people.

Love is kind, the other side of patience; a positive, active response.

Love is not envious or jealous, not displeased with another’s good fortune.

Love is not boastful, not self-asserting.

Love is not arrogant or prideful.

Love does not behave rudely or act unbecomingly.

Love does not seek its own, is not selfish, does not demand its own way.

Love is not easily provoked to anger, a selfish concern for one’s own personal rights or perceived needs.

Love “thinks no evil” (NKJ), or “does not take into account a wrong suffered” (NAS), or “keeps no record of wrongs” (NIV); it does not hold a grudge or preserve a mental list of another's mistakes.

Love does not rejoice in iniquity or unrighteousness, it has no pleasure in the prevailing of sin or the misfortunes of others.

Love rejoices with the truth: the joy of honesty, not indifferent toward moral issues, delights in the truth of God’s word. 

Love bears all things, willing to put up with petty imperfections.

Love believes all things, trusting, giving the benefit of the doubt.

Love hopes all things, eager anticipation of what lies ahead.

Love endures all things, does not easily give up on each other, the church, or the Lord.

Love never fails, it will endure forever (because God himself is love, 1 John 4:8).

Let’s make sure we consistently love God, each other, our church family, and our neighbors as we seek to draw others closer to the love of God and the God of love.

Singing and Prayer

We sang, “I Love You with the Love of the Lord,” and “Bind Us Together Lord.” Then we prayed.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The museum houses a stone lintel inscribed “synagogue of the Hebrews” (albeit fragmentary) and a stone capital with images of menorahs and palm branches, evidence of a Jewish community and synagogue in ancient Corinth (Acts 18:4-8, 12-17). The synagogue was at one time located next to the house of Titius Justus (Acts 18:7). The ruins of the massive temple of Apollo and other smaller temples, which served among other things as community centers, are relevant to Paul’s words in 1 Cor. 8:10, “For if anyone sees you having knowledge eating in an idol’s temple …” These temples, along with many other pagan shrines, statues, and artifacts, show why Paul deemed it necessary to repeatedly warn the Corinthians about the dangers of idolatry (1 Cor. 5:10-11; 6:9-11; 8:1-13; 10:7, 14, 19-22, 28; 12:2; 2 Cor. 6:16a), along with reminders that as God’s people we are his sacred temple (1 Cor. 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor. 5:1; 6:16). The agora or forum brings to life the admonition in 1 Cor. 10:25, “Eat whatever is sold in the marketplace without asking questions on account of conscience.” All around the agora are abandoned shops where the tentmaking business of Aquila, Priscilla, and Paul may have been located (Acts 18:1-3). Along the Lechaeum road leading to the agora are the remains of the public Fountain of Peirene, which would have been an ideal location for baptizing initial converts (Acts 18:8; 1 Cor. 1:14-16). The Bema, the large stone platform where Paul was brought before the Roman proconsul Gallio (Acts 18:14-16), still stands in the center of the agora.

     ² The stone is about 2.2 meters (7.5 feet) in length. A reconstruction of the worn, abbreviated inscription, probably covered originally with bronze lettering, reads: ERASTVS PRO AEDILIT[ATE] S(UA) P(ECUNIA) STRAVIT. In Rome the office of aedile, which included the maintenance of public buildings and regulating public festivals, was more prestigious during the Republic but lost much of its importance during and after the reign of Augustus. In the Empire-era the authority and responsibilities of this position varied in the different cities and colonies.

     ³ Scripture references are my own translation, unless noted otherwise.

     ⁴ Names associated with the first-century Corinth church, along with households and unnamed brethren, include Crispus, Titius Justus, Stephanas, Sosthenes, Gaius, Fortunatus, Achaicus, Tertius, Erastus, and Quartus (Acts 18:7, 8, 17; Rom. 16:22-23; 1 Cor. 1:1, 14, 16; 16:17; 2 Tim. 4:20); perhaps Epaenetus (textual variant in Rom. 16:5), and Phoebe of Corinth’s SE seaport of Cenchrea (Rom. 16:1). Also involved in this work at various times were Paul, Aquila, Priscilla, Silas [Silvanus], Timothy, Apollos, and Titus (Acts 18:1-18; 18:27–19:1; 1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10-12; 2 Cor. 1:19; 7:6-7; 8:6, 16-24; 12:17-18).

Erastus Stone

Related Posts: Kaitlyn's Post, My Family's Worship in Rome, Ancient Corinth

 

Image credit: https://beliefspeak2.net/2016/10/10/new-testament-inscriptions-erastus-of-corinth-acts-1922-romans-1613-2-timothy-420-holylandphotos-blog/

Also self-family-photo with the ruins of Apollo's temple in the background.