The Last Chapter of Romans: Benediction and Doxology (Romans 16:24-27)

“The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen” (Romans 16:24, NKJV). 

The Western text omits the grace benediction in v. 20 and has an almost identical formula here in v. 24, affecting how many times and in what location(s) the prayer-wish occurs in the final chapter. The earliest extant witnesses omit v. 24.¹ It is plausible that the grace benediction was moved from v. 20 to the end of corrupted, shorter-ending manuscripts, resulting in conflation in later copies.² The heretic Marcion of Sinope (ca. 85-160), traditionally believed to be the son of Philologus (v. 15), cut out the last two chapters of Romans in his abbreviated NT canon,³ allowing for the production of defective manuscripts thereafter.

“Now to him who is able to strengthen you according to my gospel and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery that was kept secret for long ages but has now been disclosed and through the prophetic writings has been made known to all nations, according to the command of the eternal God, to bring about the obedience of faith—to the only wise God be glory forevermore through Jesus Christ! Amen” (Romans 16:25-27, ESV). 

These verses are missing or occur at different places in a handful of manuscripts,⁴ probably due to the defective copies noted above. While some argue that a better placement is immediately after 14:23⁵ or 15:33⁶ or suspect altogether,⁷ there is no conclusive or convincing reason to dismiss the text and its present location as the apostle’s own ending to an otherwise incomplete letter.⁸ Although Pauline doxologies are typically briefer (1:25; 9:5; 11:36),⁹ Romans begins with an unusually lengthy opening address and concludes similarly, reaffirming the main ideas developed throughout.

The unidentified one who “is able” [δυναμένῳ] “to strengthen” or “to establish”¹⁰ [στηρίζω] is already understood as God (cf. vv. 20, 26, 27), who “is able” [δυνατέω] (14:4) by his divine “power” [δύναμις] (1:4, 20; 9:17; 15:13, 19),¹¹ manifested via the gospel (1:16) and the spiritual gift Paul hopes to impart “to strengthen [στηρίζω] you” or “that you may be established”¹² (1:11). Once again this is “according to” [κατά]¹³ “my gospel” [τὸ εὐαγγέλιόν μου] (cf. 1:9, 16; 2:16)—the message Paul consistently teaches (1:15; 15:16, 19, 20)—and “the preaching” [τὸ κήρυγμα] (cf. the verbal form 10:8, 14, 15) “of Jesus Christ [Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ],” the gospel’s main subject (1:4, 6, 7, 8).¹⁴

Providing an inspired commentary on the more enigmatic 11:25-32, spiritual formation is “according to” [κατά] the “revelation” [ἀποκάλυψις] (cf. 2:5; 8:19; verbal, 1:18; 8:18) of the “mystery” [μυστήριον], something once hidden but now revealed.¹⁵ What Paul proclaims is not humanly devised or discovered but divinely “disclosed” [φανερόω] (cf. 1:19; 3:21). The extended period during which the previously unknown mystery gradually unfolded—the “long ages” or “times of the ages” [χρόνοις αἰωνίοις]—reinforces the unbounded eternality of God and his purpose (cf. 2:7; 5:21; 6:22, 23; 16:25, 26); “now” [νῦν] is presently in the current age (cf. 3:26; 5:9, 11; 6:19, 21; 8:1, 18, 22; 11:5, 30, 31; 13:11).¹⁶

In addition to oral preaching,¹⁷ God’s revelation has come “through” [διά] “prophetic writings” [γραφῶν προφητικῶν]. The adj. “prophetic” [προφητικός]¹⁸ refers to what has been transmitted by a “prophet” [προφήτης] (cf. 1:2; 3:21; 11:3),¹⁹ a spokesperson for God, one through whom a “prophecy” [προφητεία] (cf. 12:6) has been communicated,²⁰ whether forthtelling a currently applicable message or predictive foretelling beyond the present. 

The focus here concerns what has been conveyed by way of “writings” [γραφῶν] or “scriptures”²¹ (cf. 1:2; 4:3; 9:17; 10:11; 11:2; 15:4). These most certainly involve the sacred writings of the OT (quoted approx. sixty-eight times in Romans, with many more allusions and verbal parallels),²² which continue to be historically, prophetically, and instructionally useful (cf. 15:4). 

Further, Paul himself has been producing inspired documents (with more to come) that are later said to be among “the rest of the scriptures” [τὰς λοιπὰς γραφάς] (2 Pet. 3:15-16).²³ And in Paul’s final apostolic manuscript, Timothy is reminded of “the sacred writings” [τὰ ἱερὰ γράμματα] he has known from childhood, then the apostle speaks of “all scripture” [πᾶσα γραφή] having been “God-breathed” [θεόπνευστος] (2 Tim. 3:14-16).²⁴ It is significant that in the previous correspondence to Timothy (1 Tim. 5:18), Paul has quoted as “scripture” both Deuteronomy 24:4 and Luke 10:7, not reciting spoken words or oral tradition but what has been put into written form [ἡ γραφή]. The NT canon was obviously forming much earlier than many critical scholars seem willing to concede.

Through these prophetic writings the gospel message “has been made known” [γνωρισθέντος – aorist participle – simple statement of fact] (cf. 9:22, 23), both in the OT (1:3; 3:21b)²⁵ and continuing in the NT (15:15),²⁶ “to all nations” [εἰς πάντα τὰ ἔθνη] (cf. 1:1-5; 4:16-18). This is “according to the command [ἐπιταγὴν]²⁷ of the eternal [αἰωνίου]²⁸ God” (cf. 1:1-17), an apparent allusion to the Great Commission.²⁹ The divine purpose is “unto” or “for” [εἰς]—“to bring about”—the “obedience of faith” [ὑπακοὴν πίστεως], drawing the letter to a close with the opposite end of the inclusio with which it opened (1:5), providing bookends that define “faith” throughout the letter as a demonstrably active faith that obeys.³⁰

This closing doxology, which starts by affirming God’s power, ends with lauding his wisdom (cf. 11:33). The Christian’s monotheistic faith (cf. 3:30)³¹ acknowledges “the only wise God,” with access to him and his wisdom (v. 19), power (v. 25), and saving grace (v. 20) “through” [διά] the mediatorial work of “Jesus Christ” (cf. 1:8; 2:16; 3:24; 5:1, 11, 17, 21; 7:4, 25). An irrepressible outburst of adulation is therefore elicited, ascribing to the heavenly throne “glory” [ἡ δόξα] (cf. 11:36; 15:6-7), a term the apostle uses primarily of God in the highest sense of honor and praise.³²

With unending veneration, the expression “forevermore” [εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας] (cf. 1:5; 9:5; 11:36) is an attempt to convey eternality, without end.³³ “And while [Paul] praises the might and wisdom of God, he knows, with heartfelt approbation, that the song of praise will go up for ever.”³⁴ The final “Amen” [ἀμήν] (cf. 1:25; 9:5; 11:36; 15:33)³⁵ is an affirmation of truth, signifying “truly” or “so be it.” With this concluding thought, what has been described as “the most profound work in existence”³⁶ comes to an end.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See C. K. Barrett, Romans 281 n.1, 286; C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:808; J. D. G. Dunn, Romans 2:901; F. Godet, Romans 501; B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary (2nd ed.) 476.

     ² W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 431.

     ³ Origen, Commentary on Romans 10.43, trans. Rufinus.

     ⁴ Missing from Greek-Latin F and G (9th cent.), 629 (14th cent.), and Latin Hier (late 5th cent.); located immediately after 14:23 in Ψ, 0209 and a few minuscules, after 15:33 in P⁴⁶and 1506, or both places in others. For more discussion, see B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary (2nd ed.) 470-73, 476-77; cf. also NET footnote.

     ⁵ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:808-13; J. Denney, “Romans” 2:723-24.

     ⁶ P. W. Comfort, A Commentary on the Manuscripts and Text of the NT 312-16.

     ⁷ C. K. Barrett, Romans 10-13; C. H. Dodd, Romans xiv-xxiv; J. A. T. Robinson, Wrestling with Romans 2-5, 147.

     ⁸ Supported by the weight of manuscript evidence and the striking parallels to the rest of the letter. “But could he, having reached the close of such a writing, fail once more to lift his eye upward and invoke on this work, the gravity of which he knew, and on the church for which it was intended, the blessing of Him who alone truly builds up and strengthens? …. In the somewhat exceptional presence of a doxology at the end of this letter, there is therefore nothing which of itself can inspire the least suspicion” (F. Godet, Romans 502). See also F. F. Bruce, Romans 23-30; D. A. Carson and D. J. Moo, An Introduction to the NT 398-401; D. J. Moo, Romans 5-9, 936-37; J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans 44-65; H. Gamble, Textual History 96-142; “Redaction” 403-18; J. Murray, Romans 2:262-68; C. J. Roetzel, Letters 103-104. The NA²⁸/UBS⁵ text includes these verses in square brackets. 

     ⁹ Note also Gal. 1:5; Phil. 4:20. The comparability to Eph. 3:20-21; 1 Tim. 1:17; 6:15-16; 2 Tim. 4:18b (cf. Heb. 13:20-21; Jude 24-25) has prompted liberal critics to question Pauline authorship. But note also Rom. 11:25-29; 1 Cor. 2:6-9; 15:51.

     ¹⁰ ASV, Darby, Douay-Rheims, LSV, MEV, NASB, NIV, NKJV, WEB. “The particle δέ, now, serves here to form the transition from the weak man who has just been writing, to the Almighty God, who can act” (F. Godet, Romans 502). 

     ¹¹ Note also the adj. δυνατός (“strong,” “able,” “powerful”) with reference to God (Rom. 4:21; 9:22; 11:23) and his faithful ones (12:18; 15:1).

     ¹² ASV, Darby, LSV, NASB, NKJV, WEB.

     ¹³ M. J. Harris observes that a repeated preposition sometimes expresses more than one sense in the same sentence or series of statements with the same case. He notes that in vv. 25-27 there seems to be three uses of κατά, conveying conformity, cause, and instrumentality, along with two uses of διά (instrumentality, agency) and three uses of εἰς (purpose, reference, goal) (Prepositions and Theology 41-42).

     ¹⁴ The double moniker “Jesus Christ,” without the added title “Lord,” occurs in Rom. 1:6, 8; 3:22; 5:15, 17; 16:25-27.

     ¹⁵ Cf. 1 Cor. 2:1, 7; 4:1; Eph. 3:3-9; Col. 1:26.

     ¹⁶ “The µυστήριον here referred to is God’s world-embracing purpose of redemption, as it has been set out conspicuously in this epistle…. The Gospel as Paul understood it was a µυστήριον, because it could never have been known except through Divine revelation” (J. Denney, “Romans” 724).

     ¹⁷ The particle τε (“and” or “also”), when use by Paul, is mostly in Romans (eighteen times); only three in 1 Corinthians, twice in 2 Corinthians, and once each in Ephesians and Philippians.

     ¹⁸ The only other occurrence of this adj. in the NT is 2 Pet. 1:19 with reference to “the prophetic word” [τὸν προφητικὸν λόγον] taught by the apostles and confirmed by “prophecy of scripture” [πρῶτον γινώσκοντες] (vv. 20-21).

     ¹⁹ In addition to the OT prophets, there were also prophets of God during the NT era (1 Cor. 12:28-29; 14:29-32; Eph. 2:20; 3:5; 4:11-16; Rev. 18:20; 22:8). Note involvement in writing (Eph. 3:3-6).

     ²⁰ Cf. 1 Cor. 12:10; 14:6, 22; 1 Thess. 5:20; 1 Tim. 1:18; 4:14; 2 Pet. 1:20-21; Rev. 1:3; 19:10; 22:10, 18, 19. Note explicit conveyance in writing (2 Pet. 1:20; Rev. 1:3; 22:10-19).

     ²¹ ASV, CSB, NASB, NET, N/KJV, WEB. The English word “scripture” is a transliteration of the Latin scriptura with reference to “a writing” or “something written.” Note throughout Romans Paul’s use of the perfect passive indicative formula, “it is written” [γέγραπται] (1:17; 2:24; 3:4, 10; 4:17; 8:36; 9:13, 33; 10:15; 11:8, 26; 12:19; 14:11; 15:3, 9, 21).

     ²² E. E. Ellis, Paul’s Use of the OT 150-85; C. G. Kruse, “Paul’s Use of Scripture in Romans,” in Paul and Scripture 10:77-92. J. Denney observes that for Paul the collection of OT writings “was essentially a Christian book. His gospel was witnessed to by the law and the prophets … and in that sense the mystery was made known through them. But their significance only came out for one—who had the Christian key to them—the knowledge of Christ which revelation had given to Paul” (“Romans” 724).

     ²³ Note also what was already established in the Petrine letters concerning divinely inspired writings (1 Pet. 1:10-12; 2 Pet. 1:19-21; 3:1-2).

     ²⁴ On the Pauline authorship of the Pastorals, see K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 177-80.

     ²⁵ Cf. Matt. 1:22-23; Luke 24:27, 44-48; John 5:46; Acts 8:30-35; 10:43; 13:22-41; 15:14-18; 17:2-3, 10-12; 18:28; 24:14; 26:22-23; 28:23; 1 Cor. 10:11.

     ²⁶ See comments v. 26; cf. John 20:30-31; 21:24; 1 Cor. 4:6, 14; 5:9, 11; 14:37; 2 Cor. 1:13; Eph. 2:19–3:11; Phil. 3:1; 2 Thess. 3:17; 1 Tim. 3:14-16; 1 Pet. 5:12; 2 Pet. 3:1, 15-16; 1 John 1:4; 2:1, 7-26; 5:13; Jude 3; Rev. 1:3, 11, 19. The messianic prophecies and promises of the OT are in the NT “revealed in fulfilment and operation” (J. Murray, Romans 2:242).

     ²⁷ The noun ἐπιταγή refers to an authoritative command, mandate, injunction (cf. 1 Cor. 7:6, 25; 2 Cor. 8:8; 1 Tim. 1:1; Tit. 1:3; 2:15).

     ²⁸ On the adj. αἰώνιος (“age-lasting” or “eternal”), see comments v. 25. The expression “eternal God” conveys a common OT concept (cf. Gen. 21:33; Deut. 33:27; Psa. 90:2; Isa. 9:6; 26:4; 40:28; Jer. 10:10; Hab. 1:12) but Paul’s use here is the only occurrence in the NT.

     ²⁹ Cf. Matt. 13:11, 17, 35; 28:18-20; Mark 16:15-16; Luke 24:45-48; Acts 1:1-8; 10:42; 15:17-18; Eph. 3:1-12; Col. 1:23-29; Tit. 1:1-3; 1 Pet. 1:10-12.

     ³⁰ This is in stark contrast to the stubborn resistance described in Rom. 2:5-8; 10:3, 16.

     ³¹ Mark 12:29, 32; John 5:44; Acts 7:35; 17:23; 1 Cor. 8:4, 6; Gal. 3:20; Eph. 4:6; 1 Tim. 2:5; Jas. 2:19.

     ³² BDAG 257-58; cf. Rom. 1:23; 3:7, 23; 4:20; 5:2; 6:4; 9:23a; 11:36; 15:7; 16:27. When used of Christ, the focus is either the final glory or the manifestation of God’s glory (1 Cor. 2:8; 2 Cor. 3:18; 4:4; 8:19, 23; 2 Thess. 2:14; Tit. 2:13). See J. D. G. Dunn, Theology of Paul the Apostle 259 n.134.

     ³³ The added τῶν αἰώνων in a number of manuscripts, expressing “an interminable accumulation of endless ‘ages’ (αἰῶνες)” (M. J. Harris, Prepositions and Theology 95; citing H. Sasse, TDNT 1:199), is probably due to the common extended formula in other doxologies (Gal. 1:5; Phil. 4:20; 1 Tim. 1:17; 2 Tim. 4:18; Heb. 13:21; 1 Pet. 4:11; 5:11; plus thirteen in Revelation), so the addition in Romans “was as natural for scribes as it would have been unusual for them to delete the words had they been original” (B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary [2nd ed.] 477).

     ³⁴ J. A. Beet, Romans 379.

     ³⁵ With textual variation, note also Rom. 16:20, 24 (LSV, N/KJV, WBT, YLT).

     ³⁶ S. T. Coleridge, Table Talk. 2nd ed. (London: John Murray, 1836): 237.

Related Post: Greetings from Christian Friends (Rom 16:21-23): Part 2

 

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The Sociocultural Context of the New Testament (Part 8): Public Reading

From earliest times the Jews gave attention to the public reading of God’s word (Exod. 24:1-7; Josh. 8:30-35; 2 Kings 22:8-13; 23:1-3; Neh. 8:1-9, 18; 9:3; 13:1). In fact, Hebrew narrative, which comprises more than 40% of the Hebrew Bible, was “designed primarily for hearers, not readers.... these texts were composed altogether with the hearer in view and thus contain structural features designed to make the narrative more memorable.”¹  In the 1st century AD public reading was a regular part of the synagogue gatherings, where both the Law and the Prophets were read aloud (Acts 13:15, 27; 15:21). Jesus customarily attended synagogue meetings and participated in the communal reading and exposition of the sacred writings (Luke 4:16-22).²

The prevalence of illiteracy in the 1st-century Mediterranean world made public reading indispensable.³ Speaking to the educated elite, Jesus could ask, “Have you not read?” (Matt. 12:3, 5; 19:4; 21:16, 42; 22:31; Luke 10:26), while in addressing the common masses it was more appropriate to say, “You have heard that it was said” (Matt. 5:21, 27, 33, 38, 43; cf. 7:24, 26; 13:19-23), albeit with reference to oral instruction. James charges his audience to be doers of the implanted word and not just “hearers” [akroataí] (Jas. 1:21-25; cf. Rom. 2:13). The apostle John pronounces a blessing on “the one reading and those hearing the words of the prophecy ...” (Rev. 1:3a).⁴

Paul commends the holy scriptures to Timothy, charging him to “preach the word” (2 Tim. 3:16–4:2) and “to give attention to the public reading [anágnōsis]” (1 Tim. 4:13; cf. Acts 13:15; 2 Cor. 3:14). At the time, in addition to the Old Testament, the writings of Luke were already regarded as “scripture” (1 Tim. 5:18), and within a comparable timeframe so were Paul’s (2 Pet. 3:15-16) [see What the Scriptures Say]. In the earliest extant Pauline document, the directive is given: “I solemnly charge you [in] the Lord, [that] this letter be read to all the brethren” (1 Thess. 5:27). Seeing that the Thessalonian correspondence would naturally have been read publicly when the Thessalonica church assembled together, the exhortation potentially includes the nearby brethren in Berea and Philippi and beyond (cf. 1:7-8; 4:10). Paul intended for his writings to be circulated rather than kept isolated in their respective localities: “and when this letter shall be read in your presence, have it also read among the church of [the] Laodiceans, and that also you may read the [one] from Laodicea” (Col. 4:16) [see Paul's Missing Letters].

By the mid-2nd century Justin Martyr writes from Rome, “And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits …”⁵ E. Ferguson remarks,“The Gospels and Prophets may have been a Christian counterpart to the Jewish readings from the Law and the Prophets…. the reading may have been continuous from Sunday to Sunday, taking up where the reading left off the last week, but not of a predetermined length. The indication is that the readings were rather lengthy ...”⁶

P. F. Esler provides helpful insights into examining the New Testament writings as they were originally designed. He reminds us that the author of each inspired document has communicated with the aim of informing and motivating a particular group of Christ-followers, most of whom potentially were illiterate. Since the text would have been read aloud when the church gathered, the message was conveyed orally and received aurally. It is therefore appropriate to consider the 27 New Testament documents as nonliterary in character, “as scripts for oral performance delivered within a setting of face-to-face dialogue …”⁷ 

Conversely, when modern readers in literary cultures interact with the written text, the tendency is to read and examine each word but fail to hear the words collectively as interpersonal discourse. “The omnipresence of printed text in our lives as a result of Gutenberg’s fifteenth-century invention of the printing press represents quite an obstacle to our understanding and benefiting from these communications in a manner that accords with their original and oral and interpersonal nature.”⁸ Esler challenges us to pay attention to the biblical author’s “communicative intentions” and listen to the New Testament “in a way that does justice to its oral and interpersonal origins.”⁹

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ G. D. Fee and D. Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth 93-103 (emp. in the text). 
     ² Cf. Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:39, 21; Luke 4:44; 13:10; John 6:59; 18:20; etc. Unless noted otherwise, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ³ It has been estimated that in the world of the Roman Empire, only about 10 and at most 20 percent of the entire population could read, and in the western part of the Empire no higher than 5 to 10 percent (W. V. Harris, Ancient Literacy 130-45). Considering the diversity of the multi-cultural and multi-lingual contexts in which early Christianity developed and spread, it is difficult to determine the educational and literacy levels within these Christian communities (H. Gamble, Books and Readers 3).

     ⁴ At times a note may be inserted in the written text for the public reader (Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14). C. Bryan says this “is probably to be understood as a stage direction to ‘the one who reads aloud (that is, to the assembly).’ If so, then in performance these words should be omitted, on the principle that one does not recite stage directions, one carries them out” (Preface to Mark 111 n. 9). Others, however, see this as applicable to the reader of Daniel (R. T. France, Gospel According to Matthew TNTC 340; R. H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary 481).

     ⁵ A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, eds., Ante-Nicene Fathers, “The First Apology of Justin” 1:186.

     ⁶ E. Ferguson, “Justin Martyr and the Liturgy,” RQ 36 [1994]: 271-72.

     ⁷ P. F. Esler, NT Theology: Communion and Community 8-9. See also K. L. Moore, The Study of Ancient Rhetoric.

     ⁸ P. F. Esler, op cit. It is helpful to note that “the difference between oral and written material was less distinct in antiquity” (E. R. Richards, “Reading, Writing, and Manuscripts,” in The World of the NT [eds. J. B. Green and L. M. McDonald] 349).

     ⁹ P. F. Esler, op cit., 88-118, 148-70.

Related Posts: Sociocultural Context Part 1: Introduction, Part 6: House Churches

Related Articles: Jovan Payes, Public Reading of Scripture

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What the Scriptures Say About the Scriptures

     The English word “scripture,” corresponding to the Greek graphē in the New Testament, is a transliteration of the Latin scriptura with reference to “a writing” or “something written.” In religious circles “the term acquires special meaning, referring not to any written text but to a text, usually a collection of texts, considered uniquely authoritative for members of that religious community” (C. R. Holladay, A Critical Introduction to the NT 572). With respect to Christianity, the term is used in the special sense of a sacred writing, i.e., recognized as inspired by the Spirit of God.

The Scriptures According to Paul

     In his final apostolic manuscript the apostle Paul exhorts Timothy, “But you must continue in the things which you have learned and been assured of, knowing from whom you have learned them, and that from childhood you have known the Holy Scriptures, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus” (2 Tim. 3:14-15).¹ The allusion here to “the Holy Scriptures” is evidently pertaining to the Hebrew Bible (a.k.a. the Old Testament), the only sacred writings available to Timothy in his younger years. Then the apostle writes, “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness …” (v. 16). Is Paul still limiting his focus here to the ancient Jewish canon, or would the adjectival “all” be inclusive of additional works?

     In his previous correspondence to Timothy, Paul had called attention to the fact that he is quoting “the Scripture” [hē graphē] as he writes, “You shall not muzzle an ox while it treads out the grain” (1 Tim. 5:18a). This citation is from Deut. 25:4, which the apostle obviously regards as “Scripture.” He then quotes these words, “The laborer is worthy of his wages” (1 Tim. 5:18b). The only other biblical record of this particular statement is Luke 10:7. Seeing that Paul, by his own admission, is not reciting the spoken words of Jesus or oral tradition but something that has been put into written form [hē graphē], he apparently considers the writings of Luke to be included among the Holy Scriptures.

The Scriptures According to Peter

     Not too long after the apostle Paul had completed his final manuscripts, the apostle Peter speaks of “our beloved brother Paul, according to the wisdom given to him, has written to you” (2 Pet. 3:15).² The audience Peter is addressing had also received correspondence from Paul. This is Peter’s second letter to these particular readers (2 Pet. 3:1), identified as those scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia (1 Pet. 1:1). We know that Paul at least sent letters to Christians living in the provinces of Galatia and Asia (viz. Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, 1-2 Timothy, and the non-extant letter to the Laodiceans).³ Then Peter alludes to other Pauline writings as well: “as also in all his epistles” (2 Pet. 3:16a). Whether or not Peter was aware of or had access to the entire Pauline corpus is debatable, but it is certainly possible.⁴ As Peter goes on to speak of “the rest of the Scriptures” (2 Pet. 3:16b), he implicitly includes the letters of Paul in this broader collection of sacred writings.

     Earlier in Peter’s second epistle, he speaks as an eyewitness, claiming to “have the prophetic word confirmed, which you do well to heed as a light that shines in a dark place …” (2 Pet. 1:16-19). He goes on to say “that no prophecy of Scripture is of [gínomai = in its origin] any private interpretation,⁵ for prophecy never came by the will of man, but holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit” (vv. 20-21). Peter not only alludes to the oral communication of “the prophetic word,” but the term “Scripture” [graphē] specifically applies to what has been transcribed in written form. This would surely include what Peter is currently writing, as well as his previous correspondence (3:1), not to mention the Pauline letters he goes on to specifically reference (3:15-16).

The Making of Scripture

     Paul reminds the saints at Ephesus “of the dispensation of the grace of God which was given to me for you, how that by revelation He made known to me the mystery (as I have briefly written already, by which, when you read, you may understand my knowledge in the mystery of Christ)” (Eph. 3:2-4). The “mystery” [mustērion = something once hidden, now revealed] had been “given” and “made known” to Paul by way of “revelation,” which he then transmitted in writing [employing a form of the verb gráphō]. Now his readers can “understand” this “knowledge” by reading what the apostle has written. Paul also affirms that the information he is sharing, “in other ages was not made known to the sons of men, as it has now been revealed by the Spirit to His holy apostles and prophets” (v. 5; cf. 2:20).

     The Lord’s “holy apostles” who reportedly contributed to the New Testament canon involved Matthew, John, Peter, and Paul. The rest of the writings would have been produced by “prophets” (divinely-inspired spokesmen), including Mark, Luke, the anonymous Hebrews writer(s), James, Jude, and even Timothy and Silvanus (cf. 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; 1 Cor. 1:1, 13; 1 Pet. 5:12).⁶ 

Conclusion:

     From the earliest days of the Christian movement, the teachings of Jesus were considered authoritative (cf. Acts 11:16; 20:35; 1 Cor. 7:10; 11:23-25; 1 John 1:1-4), and the preaching of his 1st-century representatives was acknowledged as the “word of God” (1 Thess. 2:13; cf. 4:8). Certain writings were recognized as divinely-inspired and were circulated, quoted, and included among the collection of documents known as the Holy Scriptures. The formation of the New Testament, as well as the entire biblical canon, was not the result of any individual, congregation, or council deciding which books belonged to it, but by a general recognition and acceptance of the sacred writings.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the NKJV. Like graphē, the noun grámma is also based on the verbal gráphō and refers to something written.

     ² On the authorship of 2 Peter, see Authorship of 2 Peter; also D. A. Carson, E. M. B. Green, D. Guthrie, D. J. Moo, B. Reicke.
     ³ See The Missing Letters of Paul.
     ⁴ Paul wrote his letters over a period of at least 14 years, sending them hundreds of kilometers in numerous directions. These writings were not to be kept isolated in their respective localities but were to be shared with others (Col. 4:16; 1 Thess. 5:27). Note Peter’s claim that Paul “has written to you” (2 Pet. 3:15), inclusive of readers in five Roman provinces (1 Pet. 1:1; 2 Pet. 3:1), whereas the addressees of Paul's extant writings include those living in only two of these provinces. It is not improbable that before his death Paul pre-selected which of his letters to include in a published collection. It was common in the Greco-Roman world for authors to keep copies of their works, and there is no reason to assume that Paul (a man of his times) would not have done this. In 2 Tim. 4:13 he mentions his collection of ta biblia (“the scrolls”) and tas membranas (“the parchments”), which may refer to papyrus scrolls and parchment codices or notebooks, including copies of his letters. This collection of Paul’s writings could have easily been made available to the brotherhood all at once by Timothy, Mark, and/or Luke after Paul’s death (2 Tim. 4:11-13). Note that Mark in particular worked closely with Peter (1 Pet. 5:13). "The NT writings are connected by a network of authorial associations (e.g. Mark and Peter, Luke and Paul) that present the Gospels and epistles as alternate mediums for the same message that centers on Jesus Christ" (G. Goswell, “Johannine Corpus,” JETS 61.4 [2018]: 717).

     ⁵ This passage does not suggest that an individual is incapable of interpreting Scripture for himself (as per JB, N/KJV, NASB, RSV) but has reference to the origin of Scripture, i.e., it did not originate from [gínomai] a prophet’s own understanding.
     ⁶ See Silas/Silvanus, and Timothy Part 1; also Authorship of Hebrews Part 1 and Part 2.

Related Posts: Collection & Canonization of NT Writings Part 1 and Part 2; Authorship of the Gospels 

Related articles: John Jones' What's the Big Deal About Inerrancy?; Joshua Hames, What Books Belong in the Bible?, Dave Miller, Apocrypha

Image credit: https://unlockingthebible.org/2018/01/confession-bible-verses-confessing-sins/