The Resurrection of Jesus Christ (Part 1 of 3): Introduction

 

The Fundamental Core of the Christian Message

While reaffirming what is universally taught and accepted among all first-century churches of Christ (1 Cor. 4:17; 7:17; 14:33), Paul reminds the Corinthian brethren: 

But I make known to you, brothers, the gospel [τὸ εὐαγγέλιον, “the good news”] that I proclaimed [aorist tense – past] to you, which also you received [aorist tense – past], in which also you are standing [perfect tense – past and continuing], through which also you are being saved [present tense – current and ongoing], unless you believed in vain; for I delivered [aorist tense – past] to you of first importance that which also I received [aorist tense – past] … (1 Cor. 15:1-3a).¹

That which the Corinthians had “received,” as receptive and responsive hearers,² continued to be the foundational impetus of their existence and salvation as long as faithfulness was maintained. Paul considered this message “of first importance” [ἐν πρώτοις],³ which he himself had “received”—through instruction,⁴ divine revelation,⁵ oral apostolic tradition,⁶ and the scriptures (vv. 3, 4)⁷ —consistently taught by the other apostolic teachers as well (v. 11). Paul’s repeated usage of the conjunction ὅτι with the words that follow (vv. 3b-5) is functionally equivalent to quotation marks,⁸ identifying this section as what some might call a “creedal formula,” i.e., the fundamental core of the Christian message commonly believed and reiterated in the early church: 

“Christ died [aorist tense – past] for our sins, according to the scriptures,” and “he was buried” [aorist tense – past], and “he has been raised [perfect tense – past and continuing] the third day, according to the scriptures,” and “he appeared [aorist tense – past] …” (1 Cor. 15:3b-5b)

The evidence of these claims includes records of Jesus’ antemortem predictions,⁹ his confirmed death and burial,¹⁰ the empty tomb,¹¹ eyewitness testimonies of his postmortem appearances,¹² and the gospel message resolutely proclaimed and defended by the early Christians and preserved in the New Testament.¹³

The unique basis of the Christian faith is simply called τό εὐαγγέλιον (“the gospel,” i.e., “the glad tidings” or “the good news”),¹⁴ the dissemination of which is εὐαγγελίζω (“preach the gospel,” “announce glad tidings,” or “proclaim good news”).¹⁵ The presumption that the key doctrine of “Christ crucified” was invented by early Christians is nonsensical in the context of the first-century Mediterranean world, where such an idea provoked almost universal disdain.¹⁶ Nevertheless, the message also includes Christ risen from the dead. 

The Resurrection Claim

Jesus repeatedly foretold his own death and how it would occur, as well as his resurrection and when it would occur,¹⁷ all in accordance with the prophetic scriptures.¹⁸ Even his enemies knew of these predictions (Matt. 27:63-64). Jesus was violently killed, his death confirmed, and the place of his burial secured.¹⁹ To ensure the corpse was not stolen, guards were posted, most likely Roman soldiers (note Matt. 28:12-14).²⁰ On the third day afterwards the tomb was found empty.²¹ Over a period of forty days Jesus was reportedly seen alive by hundreds of eyewitnesses in Galilee and Judea.²² These postmortem appearances involved seeing his physical presence, hearing his voice, observing his crucifixion wounds, touching him, eating with him, and being instructed by him.²³

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ² Acts 18:8; 1 Cor. 1:2-6; 11:2; 2 Cor. 6:1; cf. Acts 17:11; Gal. 1:9. The idea here of “receive” [παραλαμβάνω, to “take hold of”] is to “accept” [δέχομαι], a “grasping” and “welcoming” (1 Thess. 1:6; 2:13; cf. also Luke 8:13; Acts 8:14; 11:1; 17:11; Jas. 1:21).

     ³ See ESV, NASB, NAB, NET, NIV, N/RSV; cf. H/CSB, ISV, CEV, LSV.

     ⁴ Acts 9:5-19; 22:10-16.

     ⁵ Acts 26:16; 1 Cor. 2:10-13; 7:10, 40; 11:23; 14:37; 2 Cor. 12:1; Gal. 1:11-12; 2:2.

     ⁶ Cf. Acts 15:2; 22:10-16; Gal. 1:18; also 1 Cor. 11:2; 2 Thess. 2:15; 3:6.

     ⁷ Cf. Luke 24:27, 44-47; Acts 2:23-35; 8:35; 13:27-41; 17:2-3; 18:28; 28:23; John 20:9.

     ⁸ See BDAG 732; H. E. Dana and J. R. Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek NT (NY: Macmillan, 1927): 252; G. D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987): 718.

     ⁹ Matt. 12:38-40; 16:21-23; 17:9, 12, 22, 23; 20:18-19; 21:37-39; 26:2; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:32-34, 45; 14:8, 27-28; Luke 9:22; 18:31-33; Luke 24:6b-8; John 2:19-22; 3:14.

     ¹⁰ Matt. 27:35-50, 55-61; Mark 15:24-47; Luke 23:32-55; John 19:17-42.

     ¹¹ Matt. 28:1-8; Mark 16:1-8; Luke 24:1-3, 12, 22-24; John 20:1-10.

     ¹² Matt. 28:9-10, 17-20; Mark 16:9-19; Luke 1:2; 24:13-51; John 20:14-29; 21:1-24; Acts 1:1-8, 22; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 10:39, 41; 13:31; 22:15; 26:16; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:5-8; 1 John 1:1-4.

     ¹³ Note, e.g., Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10; 1 Cor. 1:17; 2:2; 15:1-4; Gal. 3:1. Beyond the canonical Gospels, the other NT documents support but do not significantly add to the details.

     ¹⁴ Matt. 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mark 1:1, 14, 15; 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; 16:15; Acts 15:7; 20:24. A favored expression in Paul’s writings: Romans (9x), Corinthian letters (16x), Galatians (7x), Ephesians (4x), Philippians (9x), Colossians (2x), Thessalonian letters (8x), 1-2 Timothy (4x), Philemon (1x). Elsewhere in the NT only 1 Pet. 4:17; Rev. 14:6.

     ¹⁵ Matt. 11:5; Luke 1:19; 2:10; 3:18; 4:18, 43; 7:22; 8:1; 9:6; 16:16; 20:1; Acts 5:42; 8:4, 12, 25, 35, 40; 10:36; 11:20; 13:32; 14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18. In Paul: Romans (3x), Corinthians letters (8x), Galatians (7x), Ephesians (2x), 1 Thessalonians (1x). Elsewhere in the NT only Heb. 4:2, 6; 1 Pet. 1:12, 25; 4:6; Rev. 10:7; 14:6.

     ¹⁶ Note esp. 1 Cor. 1:17–2:2. To the Jewish mind this was a “scandal” or “offense” [σκάνδαλον] (cf. Deut. 21:22-23; Gal. 3:13), and to the non-Jews, who prized strength and victory over weakness and defeat, it was considered “absurd” or “foolish” [μωρία].

     ¹⁷ Matt. 12:38-40; 16:21-23; 17:9, 12, 22, 23; 20:18-19; 21:37-39; 26:2; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:32-34, 45; 14:8, 27-28; Luke 9:22; 18:31-33; 24:6b-8; John 2:19-22; 3:14.

     ¹⁸ Luke 24:27, 44-47; John 20:9; Acts 2:23-35; 8:35; 13:27-41; 17:2-3; 18:28; 28:23; 1 Cor. 15:3-4.

     ¹⁹ Matt. 27:35-50, 54-61; Mark 15:24-47; Luke 23:32-55; John 19:17-42.

     ²⁰ If Pilate’s statement Ἔχετε κουστωδίαν (Matt. 27:65) is interpreted as an indicative, “You have a guard” (ESV, N/ASV, N/KJV, N/RSV), it could be referring to Jewish temple guards. But if the statement is an imperative, “Have a guard” (CSB, NET, NIV), the rest of the narrative makes better sense in view of the “soldiers” [στρατιῶται] (Matt. 28:12; cf. 8:9; 27:27; Mark 15:16; Luke 7:8; 23:36; John 19:2, 23-24, 32, 34) answerable to the “governor” or “prefect” [ἡγεμών] (Matt. 28:14; cf. 27:2, 27). “The authorities’ plan works in part; no one steals the body” (D. M. Doriani, “Matthew,” in ESV Expository Commentary 435).

     ²¹ Matt. 28:1-8; Mark 16:1-8; Luke 24:1-3, 12, 22-24; John 20:1-10.

     ²² Matt. 28:1-20; Mark 16:1-19; Luke 1:2; 24:1-51; John 20:1–25:25; Acts 1:1-11, 22; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 10:39, 41; 13:31; 22:15; 26:16; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:3-8; 1 John 1:1-4. 

     ²³ Matt. 28:9-20; Mark 16:9-19; Luke 24:13-51; John 20:14–21:24; Acts 1:1-9.

Related Posts: The Resurrection of Jesus Part 2, Part 3

 

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The Brutal Suffering and Death of Jesus the Christ (Part 2 of 2)

The Scourging 

Pilate had Jesus severely whipped.¹ Matthew and Mark employ the verbal φραγελλόω (to “flagellate,” “scourge”), whereas John uses μαστιγόω (to “flog,” or “beat with lashing [μάστιξ]”²), according to what Jesus himself had predicted.³ The Gospel writers are brief and pointed, without further description. The original reading audiences would have been all too familiar with the brutality of the Romans and already knew the horrific details. For modern readers, however, it is helpful to hear the words in the context of the first-century Roman world and appreciate the impact these simple statements would almost certainly have had.

The Romans used the Latin term verberatio for this savage beating, brutal enough to cause death in many cases (see Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 4.15). The instrument was a flagellum or flagrum, a short whip with three or more single or braided leather strands of varying lengths, with iron balls or pieces of sharp bone to lacerate. The victim was stripped of his clothing, with his hands bound to an upright post. “The back, buttocks, and legs were flogged either by two soldiers (lictors) or by one who alternated positions. The severity of the scourging depended on the disposition of the lictors and was intended to weaken the victim to a state just short of collapse or death.”⁴

Medically, as the victim was beaten, “the iron balls would cause deep contusions,” and the leather straps and sharp bones “would cut into the skin and subcutaneous tissues.” As the beating continued, “the lacerations would tear into the underlying skeletal muscles and produce quivering ribbons of bleeding flesh. Pain and blood loss generally set the stage for circulatory shock. The extent of blood loss may very well have determined how long the victim would survive on the cross.”⁵

Further Torture, Humiliation, and Death

Afterwards the soldiers stripped Jesus (again), put a twisted crown of thorns on his head and mocked him, spat on him, struck him on the head with a reed, and beat him with their hands.⁶ Jesus was then forced to carry the implement upon which he would be executed (John 19:17), probably the 75-125 lb. (35-60 kg) crossbeam (patibulum).⁷ Apparently weakened by extreme blood loss and fatigue, someone else (Simon of Cyrene) was conscripted to take it the rest of the way.⁸ “The physical and mental abuse meted out by the Jews and the Romans, as well as the lack of food, water, and sleep, also contributed to his generally weakened state. Therefore, even before the actual crucifixion, Jesus’ physical condition was at least serious and possibly critical.”⁹

Jesus was then crucified.¹⁰ “Death by crucifixion was one of the cruelest forms of execution humanity has ever devised.”¹¹  Tapered iron spikes of approximately 7 inches (17-18 cm)¹² were driven through the victim’s “hands” [χεῖρας] and “feet” [πόδας],¹³ affixing him to the wooden cross [σταυρός] and serving the twofold purpose of immobilization and torture – no defense against aggressive insects and other scavengers. 

It is commonly believed the spikes would have been driven through the wrists rather than the palms, since the weight of the body would cause the nails to rip through the flesh of the hands. While the term χείρ could be used for any part of the hand, incl. a “finger” (Luke 15:22) and in the plural “wrists” (Acts 12:7),¹⁴ it is not a forgone conclusion that the spikes would not and could not have been driven through the palms. Ropes were often used to hold the limbs in place, and the weight of the body would have put more pressure on the nailed feet than the hands. The biblical record employs the same word for Jesus’ crucified “hands” (Luke 24:39, 40; John 20:20, 25, 27) that consistently applies elsewhere specifically to his hands rather than his wrists.¹⁵

The bitter, perfumed wine [οἶνος] and the vinegar [ὄξος] offered to Jesus at the cross¹⁶ were not acts of compassion but further attempts to taunt him and to increase his suffering.¹⁷ The victim of a Roman crucifixion would die of muscle spasms, loss of bodily fluids, organ failure, and/or asphyxia, taking between three hours to four days to expire.¹⁸

To hasten the process, the legs would be broken below the knees to prevent the victim from pushing up on his feet to facilitate breathing (John 19:31-32). Jesus died after about six hours of suffering on the cross (Mark 15:25, 33-37, 42) without his legs being broken, and his death was confirmed by a centurion (Mark 15:39, 44-45) and a Roman soldier’s spear thrust into his side (John 19:33-37).¹⁹

Is there such a thing as a person who would actually prefer wasting away in pain on a cross—dying limb by limb one drop of blood at a time—rather than dying quickly? Would any human being willingly choose to be fastened to that cursed tree, especially after the beating that left him deathly weak, deformed, swelling with vicious welts on shoulders and chest, and struggling to draw every last, agonizing breath? Anyone facing such a death would plead to die rather than mount the cross. 

--Seneca the Younger (ca. 4 BC–AD 65), Epistulae morales 101.14.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1. It is interesting that Luke, the compassionate medical-healer, does not mention this in the trial account other than the Lord’s earlier prophetic statement (Luke 18:33). See K. L. Moore, "What Do We Know About Luke? (Part 2)," Moore Perspective (2 March 2022), <Link>.

     ² Cf. Acts 22:24; Heb. 11:36.

     ³ Matt. 20:19; Mark 10:34; Luke 18:33; cp. also Matt. 10:17; 23:34.

     ⁴ W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1457.

     ⁵ Ibid. See also D. McClister, “The Scourging of Jesus,” Truth Magazine 44:1 (Jan. 2000): 11-12.

     ⁶ Matt. 27:27-30; Mark 15:16-20; John 19:1-5.

     ⁷ An entire Roman cross could weigh over 135 kg (300 lb.), so it was the crossbeam, weighing approximately 35-60 kg (75-125 lb.), that was typically carried. See Plutarch, De sera 554; Titus Maccius Plautus, Miles gloriosus 358-360; Mostellaria 56-57; cf. Sverre Bøe, Cross-Bearing in Luke WUNT 278 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010): 63-71.

     ⁸ Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26. See K. L. Moore, “The Legacy of Simon the Cyrenian,” Moore Perspective (27 May 2020), <Link>.

     ⁹ W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1458.

     ¹⁰ Matt. 27:33-50; Mark 15:22-39; Luke 23:32-49; John 19:18-30; cf. also Matt. 20:19; 23:34; 26:2; 27:22-44; 28:5; Mark 15:13-32; 16:6; Luke 23:21, 23, 33; 24:7, 20; Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10.

     ¹¹ C. L. Blomberg, op cit. 401.

     ¹² The evidence comes from an ossuary discovered in a Jerusalem tomb in 1968, containing the remains of a first-century crucified man with the spike still lodged in his heel bones. See Vassilios Tzaferis, “Crucifixion—The Archaeological Evidence,” Biblical Archaeology Review 11:1 (Jan./Feb. 1985), <Web>. The skeleton of another crucified man was discovered in 2017 in the village of Fenstanton in Cambridgeshire, England, dating back to the second–fourth centuries, with the spike also lodged in the heel bone. See Livia Gershon, “Rare Physical Evidence of Roman Crucifixion,” Smithsonian Magazine (10 Dec. 2021), <Web>.  

     ¹³ Luke 24:39, 40; John 20:20, 25, 27.

     ¹⁴ Cp. Gen. 24:22; 38:28, 30; Jer. 40:4; cf. John 11:44.

     ¹⁵ Matt. 8:3; 9:18; 14:31; 19:13, 15; Mark 1:41; 5:23; 6:2, 5; 7:32; 8:23, 25; 10:16; Luke 4:40; 5:13; 13:13; 24:50. The evidence of the celebrated Shroud of Turin is disputable. Moreover, the Romans did not practice a uniform method of securing victims to the instruments of death of various shapes and positions. 

     ¹⁶ Matt. 27:34, 48; Mark 15:23, 36; Luke 23:36; John 19:29-30.

     ¹⁷ These were not thirst quenchers (note John 19:28) but would have increased dehydration (C. L. Blomberg, op cit. 402, 404).

     ¹⁸ F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers, “The history and pathology of crucifixion,” SAMJ 93:12 (2003): 938-41.

     ¹⁹ “The Roman guard would not leave the victim until they were sure of his death …. Since no one was intended to survive crucifixion, the body was not released to the family until the soldiers were sure that the victim was dead. By custom, one of the Roman guards would pierce the body with a sword or lance. Traditionally, this had been considered a spear wound to the heart through the right side of the chest—a fatal wound …” (W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1459-60). Also present at the cross to witness Jesus’ death was his mother and her sister, John and his mother (Salome?), Mary Magdalene, Mary the wife of Cleopas and mother of James the Less and Jose[s/ph], additional women, and perhaps other acquaintances (Matt. 27:55-56; Mark 15:40; Luke 23:49; John 19:25-26).

Related Posts: Brutal Suffering & Death of Jesus (Part 1), The Christianization of a Pagan Symbol, Chronological Confusion

 

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The Brutal Suffering and Death of Jesus the Christ (Part 1 of 2)

The Historicity of the Crucifixion

Certain aspects of the life of Jesus, particularly his death by crucifixion, “rank so high on the ‘almost impossible to doubt or deny’ scale of historical facts,” they “command almost universal consent.”¹ Nevertheless, not everyone is convinced.

 

Anti-Christian Skepticism

 

Mainstream Muslims, while believing Jesus is a real historical figure, typically reject the Gospel accounts of his death.² Other skeptics not only deny his crucifixion and death but his very existence. Sam Woolfe, a freelance writer and blogger based in London, is among the plethoric non-critical thinkers claiming the biblical account of Jesus’ life is not original but represents “the archetypal story of the archetypal hero,” with “similarities between Jesus and other gods, suggesting that the authors of the Bible borrowed myths from other religions,” particularly the “dying-and-returning-god” pattern of various legends, concluding this “suggests that there never was a real, historical Jesus.”³

 

The idea of an ancient “dying-and-returning god” archetype comes from Sir James George Frazer’s 1890 The Golden Bough: a Study in Comparative Religion. However, subsequent scholarship has proven the claim to be farcical. These so-called dying (or disappearing) and returning gods of ancient mythology are actually accounts of deities that died and did not return, or deities that returned but had not died. “The category of dying and rising gods, once a major topic of scholarly investigation, must now be understood to have been largely a misnomer based on imaginative reconstructions and exceedingly late or highly ambiguous texts.”⁴

 

Antemortem Suffering of Jesus

 

According to Luke the physician, textual variation notwithstanding,⁵ prior to Jesus’ arrest and crucifixion he was in “agony” [ἀγωνίᾳ] as he earnestly prayed, “and his sweat became like great drops of blood falling down upon the ground” (Luke 22:44). Medically, hematidrosis (bloody sweat), albeit rare, is the result of capillaries hemorrhaging into the sweat glands due to extreme mental anguish.⁶ The other Synoptics describe his volatile mental and emotional state as intense “grieving” [λυπέω], “distressing” [ἀδημονέω], “very sorrowful” [περίλυπος], and “sorely dismayed” [ἐκθαμβέομαι], “even to death” (Matt. 26:37-38; Mark 14:33-34). 

 

Jesus was arrested by an armed mob (sent and escorted by the chief priests, scribes [Pharisees], captains of the temple, and elders), carrying lanterns, torches, and “weapons,” viz. “swords and clubs.”⁷ He was treated as a λῃστής, a violent criminal like a bandit or robber or insurrectionist.⁸ All the disciples “left him and fled,” just as Jesus and the prophetic scriptures had foretold.⁹

 

He was bound and led to the former high priest Annas, where he was interrogated and slapped.¹⁰ Next he was taken to the current high priest Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin and accused of blasphemy (subject to the death penalty under Jewish law),¹¹ where they spat in his face, struck him with the fist [κολαφίζω], slapped¹² him in the face, blindfolded and beat him.¹³ He was then led bound to the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate¹⁴ and briefly transferred to the tetrarch Herod Antipas, where he was treated with contempt and mocked before being taken back to Pilate.¹⁵ 

 

Jesus was accused of sedition, treason, and insurrection, including the claim of being “king of the Jews.”¹⁶ These were very serious charges, and if proven, subject to the death penalty under Roman law. Pilate then had Jesus severely whipped.¹⁷ To be continued in the Next Post.

 

--Kevin L. Moore

 

Endnotes:

     ¹ J. G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making, Vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2019): 339; cf. also J. D. Crossan and R. G. Watts, Who Is Jesus? (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1996): 96; B. D. Ehrman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (Oxford: University Press, 1999): 101. Ehrman observes, “The crucifixion by the Romans is one of the most secure facts we have about his life” (“Why Was Jesus Crucified?” The Bart Ehrman Blog [18 Oct. 2019], <Web>).

     ² Quran 4:157-58, “In fact, they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him …”

     ³ “How the Bible Borrowed from Other Stories,” Sam Woolfe (25 April 2013), <Web>. 

     ⁴ J. Z. Smith, “Dying and Rising Gods,” in The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade (London: Macmillan, 1987): 4:521-27. See also P. R. Eddy and G. A. Boyd, The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003); B. D. Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth (NY: HarperCollins, 2012); T. N. D. Mettinger, “The ‘Dying and Rising God’: A Survey of Research from Frazer to the Present Day,” in David and Zion: Biblical Studies in Honor of J. J. M. Roberts,” eds. B. F. Bernard and K. L. Roberts (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2004): 373-86.

     ⁵ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation. While undisputed in the Byzantine Majority Text, the editors of UBS⁵ and NA²⁸ have enclosed Luke 22:43-44 in double square brackets, considering the verses to have been absent from the original and added in the early stages of transmission. On the diverse manuscript evidence, see P. W. Comfort, A Commentary on the Text and Manuscripts of the NT 235-36; B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek NT (2nd ed.) 151. Unlike other textual variants, this passage does not depend on parallel accounts or provide an explanation to the narrative. As a physician Luke would surely have an interest in bloody sweat, and angelic activity is thematic in his writings (Luke 1:11-19, 26-38; 2:9-13, 15, 21;  4:10; 9:26; 12:8-9; 15:10; 16:22; 20:36; [22:43]; 24:23; Acts 5:19; 6:15; 7:30, 35, 38, 53; 8:26; 10:3, 7, 22; 11:13; 12:7-11, 15, 23; 23:8-9; 27:23).

     ⁶ W. D. Edwards, W. J. Gabel, F. E. Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” JAMA 255:11 (21 March 1986): 1456.

     ⁷ Matt. 26:47-55; Mark 14:43-48; Luke 22:47-52; John 18:1-12.

     ⁸ Matt. 26:55; Mark 14:48; Luke 22:52; cf. Matt. 27:38; Mark 15:27; Luke 23:32-39; John 18:40; 19:18. See also Luke 10:30, 36; 2 Cor. 11:26. Josephus employs the term with reference to revolutionaries (War 2.13.5-6; Ant. 14.9.2); cf. Mark 15:7; Luke 23:25.

     ⁹ Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:27, 49-50.

     ¹⁰ Luke 22:54a; John 18:13, 19-23.

     ¹¹ Matt. 26:57-65; Mark 14:53-64; Luke 22:54, 66-71; John 18:24; cf. Lev. 24:13-16.

     ¹² ASV, CSB, ESV, NASB, NIV, N/KJV; cf. Matt. 5:39. The verbal ῥαπίζω can also mean to “strike with a rod.”

     ¹³ Matt. 26:67; Mark 14:65; Luke 22:63-65.

     ¹⁴ Matt. 27:2, 11-14; Mark 15:1-5; Luke 23:1-5; John 18:28.

     ¹⁵ Luke 23:6-25.

     ¹⁶ Matt. 27:11; Mark 15:2; Luke 23:2, 3, 5, 14; John 18:33; 19:12-15.

     ¹⁷ Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1.

Related Posts: Brutal Suffering and Death of Jesus Part 2, Were Jesus Stories Copied from Ancient Myths?

 

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Numerical Discrepancies in Ezra-Nehemiah

According to the biblical records of both Ezra and Nehemiah, the total number of Israelites who returned from Babylonian exile to rebuild the Jerusalem temple was 42,360, with 7,337 additional singers and servants (Ezra 2:64-65; Neh. 7:66-67). Ezra and Nehemiah provide almost identical lists of these people, but their numbers are not consistent. Those listed by Ezra add up to 29,818 (Ezra 2:1-58), whereas Nehemiah’s listing adds up to 31,089 (Neh. 7:5-61), a difference of 1,271. In total there are seventeen divergences in numbering between the two lists.¹ 

EZRA 2	NEHEMIAH 7	Difference
v.5 sons of Arah: 775	v.10 sons of Arah: 652	-123
v.6 sons of Pahath-moab: 2,812	v.11 sons of Pahath-moab: 2,818	+6
v.8 sons of Zattu: 945	v.13 sons of Zattu: 845	-100
v.10 sons of Bani: 642	v.15 sons of Binnui: 648	+6
v.11 sons of Bebai: 623	v.16 sons of Bebai: 628	+5
v.12 sons of Azgad: 1,222	v.17 sons of Azgad: 2,322	+1,100
v.13 sons of Adonikam: 666	v.18 sons of Adonikam: 667	+1
v.14 sons of Bigvai: 2,056	v.19 sons of Bigvai: 2,067	+11
v.15 sons of Adin: 454	v.20 sons of Adin: 655	+201
v.17 sons of Bezai: 323	v.23 sons of Bezai: 324	+1
v.28 men of Bethel and Ai: 223	v.32 men of Bethel and Ai: 123	-100
v.33 sons of Lod, Hadid, Ono: 725	v.37 sons of Lod, Hadid, Ono: 721	-4
v.35 sons of Senaah: 3,630	v.38 sons of Senaah: 3,930	+300
v.41 sons of Asaph: 128	v.44 sons of Asaph: 148	+20
v.42 gatekeepers’ sons: 139	v.45 gatekeepers’ sons: 138	-1
v.60 miscellaneous: 652	v.62 miscellaneous: 642	-10
v.65 singers: 200	v.67 singers: 245	+45

            

Ezra’s itemized list of 29,818 people is short of the grand total by 12,542. Nehemiah’s itemized list of 31,089 is short of the grand total by 11,271. Moreover, each includes individuals not mentioned in the other account. Ezra references 494 persons not found in Nehemiah, and Nehemiah has 1,765 persons missing from Ezra. Adding Nehemiah’s additional names to Ezra’s equals 31,583, which is the same amount when adding Ezra’s additional names to Nehemiah’s. However, the combined numbers are still 10,777 short of the total 42,360 as affirmed in each account (Ezra 2:64; Neh. 7:66). 

Qualifying Variables

·      Each listing is representative, and neither claims to be exhaustive.

·      Ezra’s list seems to have been compiled in Babylon before departure (cf. Ezra 2:1),² while Nehemiah’s much larger list (accessed approx. 13 years later) focuses on those who actually arrived in Jerusalem (cf. Neh. 7:5). Births, deaths, and other circumstances would surely have altered these figures. 

·      The entire congregation consisted of men, women, and children, whereas only the “men” are specifically numbered (Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7). The conventional counting of males 20 years of age and above,³ along with the considerable time involved in preparing, relocating, and settling the multitude, must allow for the maturation of boys to men during the process.

·      Since the primary focus of both Ezra and Nehemiah is Jerusalem in the land of Judah (Ezra 1:2-3; 2:1; 4:6; 5:1; Neh. 1:2; 2:5; 7:6), they document families of the tribes of “Judah and Benjamin” (Ezra 1:5; 4:1; Neh. 11:4, 36), along with prominent Levites (Ezra 2:40, 70; 6:18; Neh. 7:43). The whole congregation of Israel then included other tribes (numbering 10,777 persons) located in other cities (Ezra 2:70; 3:1; 6:16-17, 21; Neh. 7:73).

Contextual Perspective 

While there will always be critics attempting to microscopically find fault, any questions or concerns that might be raised regarding the divine inspiration and integrity of the biblical record are unfounded. The primary aim of Ezra-Nehemiah is clearly theological, albeit within a real historical context, providing a spiritual foundation for future generations of God’s restored people. 

Narrative details that might capture our interest, whether historical, chronological, statistical, et al., are merely secondary to this higher purpose and not designed to satisfy our superficial curiosities. Mathematical precision was obviously not the purpose of the respective reports, although the meticulous numbering does reflect the enormity of the task and demonstrates the careful attention to organization. 

All things considered, the similarities between Ezra 2 and Nehemiah 7 are much more remarkable than the variations. While itemized differences reflect independent reporting, the fact that Ezra and Nehemiah both end up with the same exact number of repatriated Israelites surely confirms divine consistency.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Thanks to Joseph R. Nally, Jr., “Q&A Knowledgebase,” Thirdmill (retrieved 24 Sept. 2021), <Link>.

     ² The masculine plural participle הָֽעֹלִים֙ [hā·‘ō·lîm] in Ezra 2:1 is more literally rendered “went up out of” (ASV) rather than “came up out of” (NASB).

     ³ Ezra 3:8; cf. Ex. 30:14; 38:26; Num. 1:3, 18-45; 14:29; 26:2, 4; 32:11; 1 Chron. 23:24, 27; 27:23; 2 Chron. 25:5; 31:17. 

Related Posts: Alleged Discrepancies in Ezra-Nehemiah Part 1, Proposed Chronology of Postexilic Period BC 

Related articles: Neal Pollard, The Restorers

 

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