Chronological Confusion About the Earthly Ministry of Jesus

Raised in a carpenter’s family (Matt. 13:55), Jesus himself worked as a Galilean carpenter into adulthood (Mark 6:3).¹ The ministry of John the baptizer began in the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar’s reign (ca. 26/27), and Jesus started his ministry sometime after when he was “about” 30 years of age (Luke 3:1, 23). The word “about” [ὡσεί] suggests he was not exactly 30 but probably a bit older. 

The first Passover during his ministry was 46 years after Herod had begun construction on the temple (John 2:13, 20). Almost all modern scholars date the beginning of the temple’s construction at around 20/19 BC, the 18th year of Herod’s reign (cf. Josephus, Ant. 15.11.1), although Josephus gives conflicting information elsewhere (Wars 1.21.1, viz. the 15th year of Herod’s reign). 

The public ministry of Jesus incorporated at least three and potentially four Passovers (John 2:13; [5:1]; 6:4; 12:1),² thus about three to three-and-a-half years (depending on what time of year it began).³ Jesus was crucified on Friday, the day before the Sabbath, approx. 9 a.m. – 3 p.m. (Mark 15:25, 33, 42).⁴ The final meal he shared with the apostles prior to his death was the previous evening, on Thursday.

Chronological Confusion in the Gospel Records 

According to the Synoptic accounts, the day of Christ’s crucifixion followed the Passover supper the night before, but John’s Gospel seems to place the crucifixion on the day of preparation prior to the Passover meal (Matt. 26:17-19; Mark 14:12-16; Luke 22:7-15; John 18:28; 19:14). Either John is right and the Synoptics are wrong, or the Synoptics are right and John is wrong, or the discrepancy is more apparent than real and can be harmonized upon closer examination.⁵

The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread 

The Passover was instituted around fifteen centuries before Christ to commemorate the Israelites’ deliverance from the tenth plague and subsequent exodus from Egyptian bondage. The Law required that a lamb be killed at twilight on the 14th day of the first month of the Jewish calendar,⁶ then roasted and eaten the same evening with unleavened bread (Ex. 12:6, 8, 18). The following day (the 15th) was the beginning of a seven-day festival called “the feast of unleavened bread” [Heb. Mazzoth], and all leavening agents were to be removed from the home and unleavened bread eaten through the 21st day of the month (Ex. 12:15, 17, 19; 13:6-7; 23:15; 34:18; Lev. 23:5-6; Num. 28:16-17). In total this was an eight-day celebration: the 14th day was the Passover, and the 15th–21st days were the feast of unleavened bread.⁷

By the first century AD, the Passover and the feast of unleavened bread were not clearly distinguished. Luke refers to “the feast of the unleavened [bread], the [feast] called Passover” (Luke 22:1; cf. Acts 12:3-4; 20:6).⁸ Josephus reports that the 14th day of the first Jewish month (when leaven was prohibited) was considered the first day of the feast of unleavened bread (Ant. 17.9.3; 18.2.2; 20.5.3);⁹ “on the feast of unleavened bread, which was now come, it being the fourteenth day of the month …” (Wars 5.3.1); “we keep a feast for eight days, which is called the feast of unleavened bread” (Ant. 2.15.1), also called “the Passover” (Wars 6.9.3).¹⁰

To complicate matters further, verbal usage shows various nuances with which the expression “the Passover” [τό πάσχα] was used. The Passover was something to “keep” or “observe” [ποιέω],¹¹ to “kill” or “sacrifice” [θύω],¹² to “prepare” [ἑτοιμάζω],¹³  and to “eat” [φάγω].¹⁴ Thus the Passover was an ordinance,¹⁵ a day,¹⁶ a week,¹⁷ a lamb,¹⁸ a meal,¹⁹ a memorial,²⁰ and a celebration.²¹

The similarities and differences among the following parallel accounts are informative:

·      Matt. 26:17, “Now the first [πρῶτος] of the unleavened [bread], the disciples came to Jesus, saying, ‘Where do you want us to prepare for you to eat the Passover?”

·      Mark 14:12, “And the first [πρῶτος] day [ἡμέρα] of the unleavened [bread], when they would sacrifice [θύω] the Passover, his disciples say to him, ‘Where do you want us to go to prepare that you may eat the Passover?’” 

·      Luke 22:7, “Now came the day [ἡμέρα] of unleavened [bread] on which it was necessary for the Passover to be sacrificed [θύω].” 

Note the original distinction between the Passover and the feast of unleavened bread is no longer recognized. According to sequence of days, the 15th day of the month was the “first” day of the feast of unleavened bread, but in practice the 14th (the Passover) was considered “first” in importance.²² The last supper Jesus shared with his disciples on the Thursday evening before his death was apparently the inaugural Passover meal. 

Matthew, a Jewish author writing to a Jewish audience, does not explicitly reference the “day” and omits “sacrifice the Passover,” alleviating the subtle tension between the Law’s directives and current Jewish conventions. Mark, a Jewish author writing to a non-Jewish audience, includes “first,” “day,” and “sacrifice the Passover.” Luke, a non-Jewish author writing to a non-Jewish audience, omits “first” but includes “day” and “the Passover to be sacrificed.” Luke seems to have no reservations about combining into one “the feast of the unleavened [bread], the [feast] called Passover” (Luke 22:1).

John’s Unique Perspective

Notwithstanding a couple of obscure references (see below), whenever John employs the somewhat fluid expression “the Passover,” he does not appear to be focused on a single meal or a single day but has the extended eight-day celebration in mind (John 2:13, 23; 6:4; 11:55; 12:1; 13:1; 18:39).²³ John 13:1 stands on its own and simply notes what Jesus already knew prior to the Passover festivities. Then v. 2 picks up during the meal [δεῖπνον](note also vv. 4, 26; 21:20), presumably the Passover meal proper.

In John 18:28, after Jesus’ arrest in the early morning, the Jewish authorities wanted to avoid defilement so they “might eat the Passover.” While the official Passover supper (incl. roasted lamb) would have been consumed the night before, customary usage included the entire feast of unleavened bread that involved multiple sacrificial meals.²⁴ Ceremonial defilement would have disrupted the ongoing Passover celebrations.²⁵ John’s text simply highlights the twisted thinking and empty ritualism of these murderous hypocrites but does not provide a definitive chronological statement.

According to John 19:14, Jesus stood trial on the “preparation [day] of the Passover.” Contrary to what many have assumed, the text does not say, “preparation for the Passover.”²⁶ Seeing that John repeatedly employs the expression “the Passover” in the broader sense of the ongoing (weeklong) festival, the day of preparation was not for a single night-time meal but for the special Sabbath of Passover week.²⁷ The noun παρασκευή (“preparation [day]”) occurs five other times in the NT (Matt. 27:62; Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54-56; John 19:31, 42), all consistent with Mark’s fuller sense, “it was preparation [day], that is, the day before the Sabbath.” There is no evidence that παρασκευή was ever used for any day other than Friday, the eve of the Sabbath.²⁸ This was the day of preparation, not for the inaugural Passover meal but for the Sabbath (when no preparations were allowed) and continued feasting. 

The Historical Setting of the Trial and the Crucifixion

The crucifixion of Jesus is a matter of historical record involving prominent historical figures. Pontius Pilate was prefect of Judea during the years AD 26-36 (Luke 3:1; 23:1).²⁹ Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee and Perea 4 BC–AD 37 (Luke 3:1; 23:6-12). Caiaphas was high priest AD 18-36 (Matt. 26:3, 57).³⁰

Jesus was arrested and brought first to Annas, then to Caiaphas (John 18:13, 24) and the Sanhedrin (Matt. 26:57-68; Mark 14:53-65; Luke 22:66-71), charged with blasphemy and sentenced to death (cf. John 19:7). The Romans had divested the power from the Sanhedrin to execute the death penalty (John 18:31), so Jesus was delivered to the local prefect Pontius Pilate (Matt. 27:11-14; Mark 15:1-5; cf. John 18:28-38). Only Luke records Pilate sending Jesus to Herod Antipas (Luke 23:6-12, 15a; Acts 4:27), who then returned Jesus to Pilate, seeing that the prefect had greater authority as the emperor’s personal representative. 

The year of the Lord’s death would have been ca. AD 30.³¹ It was springtime in Judea, approximately six weeks prior to ripe figs, around March/April during Passover week (Mark 11:12-13; 13:28; 14:1, 12).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The family of Jesus appears to have been among the lower echelons of society, indicated by the poor man’s sacrifice offered in Luke 2:22-24 (cf. Lev. 12:1-8). The term τέκτων is indicative of a craftsman working with wood, stone, and perhaps metal (K. M. Campbell, “Jesus’ Occupation,” JETS 148 [2005]: 501). While L. M. White maintains that in the Roman world “an artisan should typically have been of a higher social standing than a peasant farmer” (From Jesus to Christianity 102), A. A. Bell, Jr. probably goes too far in suggesting the family of Jesus would have been affluent (Exploring the NT World 208, 274). 

     ² The Synoptics explicitly mention only one of these Passovers, although additional springtime periods are implied (Mark 2:23-28; 6:39). 

     ³ A range of one to four years has been proposed for the length of Christ’s public ministry. On the complex nature of the data, see R. Riesner, Paul’s Early Period 48-58; C. L. Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels (2nd ed.) 223-29.

     ⁴ The time reference in John 19:14 is probably based on Roman civil time, thus “the sixth hour” was around 6:00 a.m. However, L. Morris maintains that neither Mark nor John was attempting to give a precise time of day but a mere approximation to convey a more general “late morning” (The Gospel according to John [rev.] NICNT 708).

     ⁵ For arguments and proponents supporting each of these views, see N. Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke NICNT 649-70. Geldenhuys concludes, “it is not John’s actual statements that create a problem in relation to the Synoptics, but a wrong interpretation of his statements” (663, emp. in the text).

     ⁶ The Hebrew name of the first month was Abib (or Aviv), meaning “barley ripening” inaugurating Spring (Ex. 13:4; 23:15; 34:18). During and after the Babylonian exile the first month of the Jewish calendar was called Nisan, meaning “month of beginning” (Neh. 2:1; Esth. 3:7).

     ⁷ Since each major Jewish holiday “consisted of an introductory feast, the main feast of seven days, and a closing feast of one day,” the Passover was “the introductory festival” that “culminated in the seven days’ feast of unleavened bread …” (C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the OT 3:218, emp. in the text).  

     ⁸ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ⁹ Josephus was aware of the biblical distinctions: “on the fourteenth day of the lunar month …. called the Passover …. The feast of unleavened bread succeeds that of the Passover, and falls on the fifteenth day of the month, and continues seven days, wherein they feed on unleavened bread …. But on the second day of unleavened bread, which is the sixteenth day of the month …” (Ant. 3.10.5). 

     ¹⁰ Oral traditions recorded in the Mishnah noted differences between the original Passover observance and later practices, including: “the Paschal lamb in Egypt was only on one night, whereas the Paschal lamb throughout the generations is observed for seven days” (Pesachim 9.5).

     ¹¹ Matt. 26:18; cf. Ex. 12:48; Num. 9:2-6; Deut. 16:1; 2 Chron. 30:1, 5; 35:16-17; 1 Cor. 5:8.

     ¹² Mark 14:12; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor. 5:7; cf. Ex. 12:21; Deut. 16:6.

     ¹³ Matt. 26:19; Mark 14:16; Luke 22:8, 13.

     ¹⁴ Matt. 26:17; Mark 14:12, 14; Luke 22:11, 15; cf. Deut. 16:7; 2 Chron. 30:18.

     ¹⁵ Ex. 12:14, 24, 43; 13:10; Num. 9:3.

     ¹⁶ Ex. 12:14; 13:3-4; Luke 22:7.

     ¹⁷ Luke 22:1; Acts 12:3-4; 20:6; cf. John 13:29. 

     ¹⁸ Ex. 12:21; Deut. 16:6; Mark 14:12a; Luke 22:7.

     ¹⁹ Matt. 26:17, 19; Mark 14:12b, 14, 16; Luke 22:8, 11, 13, 15.

     ²⁰ Ex. 12:14a, 26-27; Deut. 16:1.

     ²¹ Matt. 26:2, 18; Mark 14:1; Luke 2:41; John 2:13, 23; 6:4; 11:55; 12:1; 13:1; 18:39.

     ²² Matthew employs the adj. πρῶτος (“first”) to convey sequence (10:2; 12:45; 20:8, 10; 21:28, 31, 36; 22:25; 27:64), but also prominence (19:30; 20:16, 27; 22:38). Mark employs the adj. πρῶτος (“first”) to convey sequence (12:20), but mostly prominence (6:21; 9:35; 10:31, 44; 12:28, 29).

     ²³ See N. Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke NICNT 661-63; T. von Zahn, Introduction to the NT 282. 

     ²⁴ Note Num. 28:17-25; cf. Lev. 7:15-19; Deut. 12:6-7, 17-21, 27. 

     ²⁵ Cf. Num. 9:6; 2 Chron. 30:2-3, 18. It has been noted that after the first evening of the Passover feast the next important meal was at noon the next day (B. D. Smith, “The Chronology of the Last Supper,” WTJ 53 [1991]: 29-45; C. L. Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of the NT 216-25).

     ²⁶ Among English versions mistranslating the text are CSB, ISV, NASB, NLT. 

     ²⁷ Note “the seventh day of the week, being a Sabbath, was distinguished above the other days of the week, as a day that was sanctified to the Lord in a higher degree than the rest …” (C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the OT 3:217). 

     ²⁸ See esp. L. Morris, The Gospel according to John (rev.) NICNT 686-87, 708; also C. L. Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of the NT 224-25; N. Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke NICNT 661-63; T. von Zahn, Introduction to the NT 664-65.

     ²⁹ Tacitus, Annals 15.44; Josephus, Ant. 18.4.1-2. Alternative dates are 27-37 (ISBE 4:2396-97). When Archelaus (son of Herod the Great) was deposed in AD 6, the Romans stationed military prefects in Judea to govern the province. Pontius Pilate was appointed in the twelfth year of Tiberius Caesar as the sixth prefect of Judea. 

     ³⁰ Jesus was first led to Annas and then taken to Caiaphas (John 18:13). When Judea became a province of the Roman Empire in AD 6, the Romans appointed Annas as high priest. Annas was then deposed in AD 15 and replaced by his son-in-law Caiaphas, although Annas and Caiaphas continued to jointly exercise authority and influence (cf. Luke 3:2).

     ³¹ The traditional date of AD 33 is based on the assumption that the Lord’s ministry began at year 30, even though the biblical record says he was “about” 30 years of age (Luke 3:23).

Related Posts: Chronology of the Death & Resurrection of Jesus, Harmonized Timeline of Christ's Resurrection 

Related articles: Dave Miller, At What Hour Was Jesus Crucified?

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