The Resurrection of Jesus Christ (Part 2 of 3): The Evidence

The Veracity of the Evidence 

All knowledge of ancient history depends on the credibility of historians and the information they report. Most if not all their information comes from reliable witness corroboration. Long before modern-day recording devices and forensic analysis, eyewitness testimony was the most valuable source of evidence.¹ From an ancient-oral-culture perspective, accurately remembering facts and transmitting them verbally was standard practice, and group recollection strengthened memory, recall, and consistent reporting even more.² During the first few decades of the Christian movement, as the reports of key persons and events circulated, eyewitnesses were still around to guard against significant variation.

Luke affirms that his historical records are based on the testimonies of “eyewitnesses,” enabling his reading audience to “know thoroughly” [ἐπιγινώσκω] with “certainty” [ἀσφάλεια] (Luke 1:2-4) in light of the “many proofs” [πολλοῖς τεκμηρίοις] (Acts 1:3).³ Jesus having raised from the dead is therefore provable (Acts 17:31) rather than something to accept with blind faith.

The Abundance of Evidence

While the prospect of false witnesses is problematic in any age,⁴ this would be virtually impossible to achieve with the sheer numbers of analogous reports behind the NT records from so many willing to suffer and die for their convictions. “Trusting testimony is not an irrational act of faith that leaves critical rationality aside; it is, on the contrary, the rationally appropriate way of responding to authentic testimony.”⁵

According to Roman law, “Where the number of witnesses is not specified by law, two are sufficient” (Code, 4.20.8; Digest, 22.5.1, 12). The Jewish law required “two or three witnesses” (Deut. 17:6; 19:15). To confirm the reality of Christ’s resurrection, the canonical Gospels provide four separate witnesses, although each is based on numerous individual eyewitness accounts.⁶  Twenty-three additional multi-authored documents also comprise the NT, wherein even more evidence is documented.⁷

While not providing an exhaustive list, Paul specifically mentions fourteen eyewitnesses, adding another 500+ (1 Cor. 15:3-8). The Gospels-Acts reveal at least nine more (unless Nathanael = Bartholomew).⁸ Twenty-one of these are named in the biblical record: eleven of the original apostles, James the Lord’s brother, Paul, Mary Magdalene, Mary mother of James, Salome, Joanna, Cleopas, Nathanael, Joseph Barsabbas Justus, and Matthias. Of all those recounted, most were still alive at the time the NT records were produced and their testimonies were thus subject to verification (1 Cor. 15:6; cf. Acts 26:26).

Testimony of Women 

The first documented eyewitnesses of the resurrected Christ were females (Mark 16:1-8), which is inconceivable if the story were fabricated. Women in the staunchly-entrenched patriarchal societies of the first-century Mediterranean world were typically viewed as inferior to men and less trustworthy, so their testimonies were inadmissible in a court of law.⁹ In this particular sociocultural environment, one would think that the foundational belief of the Jesus movement would not rely on what was perceived at the time to be precarious confirmation, unless of course it actually happened.

Chronological Proximity of the Evidence 

Announcements of Jesus’ resurrection began immediately,¹⁰ and word rapidly spread across the Roman Empire and beyond (Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1–28:31). The oral transmission of the message, eventually committed to writing, established Christianity in a hostile Jewish environment that spread throughout a resistant polytheistic world to become an impactful global movement that continues to this day. 

Beginning in Jerusalem around spring and early summer AD 30, the bold proclamation of “the gospel” or “the good news” [τό εὐαγγέλιον] convicted and converted multiplied thousands of Jewish people, who disseminated the message far and wide (Acts 2:1–8:4). Only about three years after the reported death and resurrection of Jesus, a violently antagonistic Jew named Saul, later known as Paul, was also impacted by this reality and dedicated the rest of his life to its proclamation (Acts 9:1–28:31). 

Having preached and defended “the good news” for about seventeen years from Palestine to Greece, Paul ventured to the pagan city of Corinth where he and his coworkers spent eighteen months affirming these truths.¹¹ Approximately five years later Paul wrote to the Corinth church, reminding them of the compelling testimony of Christ’s death and resurrection they had wholeheartedly embraced (1 Cor. 15:1-5), the same as consistently taught since the inception of the Christian movement less than three decades earlier. 

Skeptics tend to make a big deal out of the alleged “lateness” of the written Gospels, postulating the remotest possible dates that seem far removed from the events in question. Yet Paul’s undisputed writings and the oral transmission of the same basic message, predating the published Gospel accounts, render this criticism far less consequential than critics intend. Before any NT documents were produced, the essential teachings conveyed therein had been circulating and confirmed by living guarantors for many years.

Even if the most extreme estimates are considered, the published accounts of the NT were still within living memory of Jesus’ life on earth. If consistency demands that all other records of antiquity be treated with the same degree of scrutiny, how can anyone discounting the NT be confident about anything that occurred in the distant past?  

[T]he Gospels were produced well within the lifetimes of some who were eyewitnesses of Jesus’s ministry. By ancient standards this was a short period of time between the life of a famous individual and the appearance of biographies about him…. No other examples from antiquity have been preserved of this abundance of information from multiple authors in writings so close to the people and events being described.¹²

Concluding Observations

If the bodily resurrection of Jesus could so easily be discredited, how did it become the central doctrine of the Christian faith and how did it spawn a worldwide movement? The early believers did not choose their religion because it was familiar and popular. They embraced the Christian faith as true, irrespective of cultural conditioning and without violent coercion (just the opposite!). Christianity began and flourished among real people in the first-century world who could readily test its claims.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Among ancient historians, from Herodotus (ca. 484-425 BC) to Tacitus (ca. AD 56-120) to Ammianus Marcellinus (ca. AD 330-395), the reports of eyewitnesses were the preferred source of information. Note also Papias of Hierapolis, “Expositions of the Oracles of the Lord” (Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.39.3-4). See D. E. Aune, The NT in Its Literary Environment 81; S. Byrskog, Story as History—History as Story 48-65.

     ² See J. D. G. Dunn, “Eyewitnesses and the Oral Jesus Tradition,” JSHJ 6 (2008): 85-105; B. Gerhardsson, “The Secret of the Transmission of the Unwritten Jesus Tradition,” NTS 51 (2005): 1-18; K. E. Bailey, “Middle Eastern Oral Tradition and the Synoptic Gospels,” ExpTim 106 (1995): 363-67.

     ³ ASV, ESV; also rendered “many infallible proofs” (N/KJV), “many convincing proofs” (CSB, NASB, NIV, NRSV). The noun τεκμήριον is a technical term from logic, referring to that which causes something “to be known in a convincing and decisive manner, proof” (BDAG 994).

     ⁴ Deut. 19:15-16; 1 Kings 21:7-14; Psa. 27:12; Prov. 14:5; Matt. 26:59-60; 27:12-13; Acts 6:13.

     ⁵ R. Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses 5.

     ⁶ Matt. 28:1-20; Mark 16:1-19; Luke 1:2; 24:1-51; John 20:1–25:25.

     ⁷ As a continuation of Luke’s record, Acts 1:3, 22; 2:23-32; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10; 5:30-32; 10:39-40; 13:28-37; 17:3, 18, 31-32; 24:21; 25:19; 26:8, 23. Further, Rom. 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor. 6:14; 9:1; 15:1-8, 12-21; 2 Cor. 4:14; 5:14-15; Gal. 1:1; Eph. 1:20; Phil. 3:10; Col. 2:12; 1 Thess. 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim. 2:8; Heb. 13:20-21; 1 Pet. 1:3; 3:21; 2 Pet. 1:16; 1 John 1:1-3. 

     ⁸ Matt. 28:9-10, 16-20; Mark 16:9-19; Luke 24:13-49; John 20:11-29; 21:1-14; Acts 1:2-9, 21-23; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:4-8. See K. L. Moore, “The 12 Apostles (Part 7): Bartholomew,” Moore Perspective (5 April 2014), <Link>.

     ⁹ Josephus, Ant. 4.8.15; cf. Aristotle, Pol. 1.1259b; Cicero, Pro Murena 12.27; Epictetus, Disc. 2.4. A woman’s position in law was essentially determined by her position in the legal family unit. The husband and father had supreme authority, as Roman law accepted the supremacy of the male (Patria Potestas). Thus “the public law of Rome did not recognize women at all …. So we find that women were ineligible as witnesses in court” (J. A. Couch, “Women in Early Roman Law,” Harvard Law Review 8:1 [25 April 1894]: 42-43).

     ¹⁰ Matt. 28:7-10; Mark 16:6-10; Luke 24:9; John 20:2-18.

     ¹¹ Acts 18:1-18; 1 Cor. 3:2, 5-11; 4:14-17; 11:2; 15:1-3a; 2 Cor. 1:19; 6:1-11.

     ¹² C. L. Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of the NT 17-19.

Related Posts: Resurrection of Jesus Part 1, Part 3 

Related articles: Caleb Colley, Lack of Neutrality Knowing Historical Facts

 

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The Resurrection of Jesus Christ (Part 1 of 3): Introduction

 

The Fundamental Core of the Christian Message

While reaffirming what is universally taught and accepted among all first-century churches of Christ (1 Cor. 4:17; 7:17; 14:33), Paul reminds the Corinthian brethren: 

But I make known to you, brothers, the gospel [τὸ εὐαγγέλιον, “the good news”] that I proclaimed [aorist tense – past] to you, which also you received [aorist tense – past], in which also you are standing [perfect tense – past and continuing], through which also you are being saved [present tense – current and ongoing], unless you believed in vain; for I delivered [aorist tense – past] to you of first importance that which also I received [aorist tense – past] … (1 Cor. 15:1-3a).¹

That which the Corinthians had “received,” as receptive and responsive hearers,² continued to be the foundational impetus of their existence and salvation as long as faithfulness was maintained. Paul considered this message “of first importance” [ἐν πρώτοις],³ which he himself had “received”—through instruction,⁴ divine revelation,⁵ oral apostolic tradition,⁶ and the scriptures (vv. 3, 4)⁷ —consistently taught by the other apostolic teachers as well (v. 11). Paul’s repeated usage of the conjunction ὅτι with the words that follow (vv. 3b-5) is functionally equivalent to quotation marks,⁸ identifying this section as what some might call a “creedal formula,” i.e., the fundamental core of the Christian message commonly believed and reiterated in the early church: 

“Christ died [aorist tense – past] for our sins, according to the scriptures,” and “he was buried” [aorist tense – past], and “he has been raised [perfect tense – past and continuing] the third day, according to the scriptures,” and “he appeared [aorist tense – past] …” (1 Cor. 15:3b-5b)

The evidence of these claims includes records of Jesus’ antemortem predictions,⁹ his confirmed death and burial,¹⁰ the empty tomb,¹¹ eyewitness testimonies of his postmortem appearances,¹² and the gospel message resolutely proclaimed and defended by the early Christians and preserved in the New Testament.¹³

The unique basis of the Christian faith is simply called τό εὐαγγέλιον (“the gospel,” i.e., “the glad tidings” or “the good news”),¹⁴ the dissemination of which is εὐαγγελίζω (“preach the gospel,” “announce glad tidings,” or “proclaim good news”).¹⁵ The presumption that the key doctrine of “Christ crucified” was invented by early Christians is nonsensical in the context of the first-century Mediterranean world, where such an idea provoked almost universal disdain.¹⁶ Nevertheless, the message also includes Christ risen from the dead. 

The Resurrection Claim

Jesus repeatedly foretold his own death and how it would occur, as well as his resurrection and when it would occur,¹⁷ all in accordance with the prophetic scriptures.¹⁸ Even his enemies knew of these predictions (Matt. 27:63-64). Jesus was violently killed, his death confirmed, and the place of his burial secured.¹⁹ To ensure the corpse was not stolen, guards were posted, most likely Roman soldiers (note Matt. 28:12-14).²⁰ On the third day afterwards the tomb was found empty.²¹ Over a period of forty days Jesus was reportedly seen alive by hundreds of eyewitnesses in Galilee and Judea.²² These postmortem appearances involved seeing his physical presence, hearing his voice, observing his crucifixion wounds, touching him, eating with him, and being instructed by him.²³

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ² Acts 18:8; 1 Cor. 1:2-6; 11:2; 2 Cor. 6:1; cf. Acts 17:11; Gal. 1:9. The idea here of “receive” [παραλαμβάνω, to “take hold of”] is to “accept” [δέχομαι], a “grasping” and “welcoming” (1 Thess. 1:6; 2:13; cf. also Luke 8:13; Acts 8:14; 11:1; 17:11; Jas. 1:21).

     ³ See ESV, NASB, NAB, NET, NIV, N/RSV; cf. H/CSB, ISV, CEV, LSV.

     ⁴ Acts 9:5-19; 22:10-16.

     ⁵ Acts 26:16; 1 Cor. 2:10-13; 7:10, 40; 11:23; 14:37; 2 Cor. 12:1; Gal. 1:11-12; 2:2.

     ⁶ Cf. Acts 15:2; 22:10-16; Gal. 1:18; also 1 Cor. 11:2; 2 Thess. 2:15; 3:6.

     ⁷ Cf. Luke 24:27, 44-47; Acts 2:23-35; 8:35; 13:27-41; 17:2-3; 18:28; 28:23; John 20:9.

     ⁸ See BDAG 732; H. E. Dana and J. R. Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek NT (NY: Macmillan, 1927): 252; G. D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987): 718.

     ⁹ Matt. 12:38-40; 16:21-23; 17:9, 12, 22, 23; 20:18-19; 21:37-39; 26:2; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:32-34, 45; 14:8, 27-28; Luke 9:22; 18:31-33; Luke 24:6b-8; John 2:19-22; 3:14.

     ¹⁰ Matt. 27:35-50, 55-61; Mark 15:24-47; Luke 23:32-55; John 19:17-42.

     ¹¹ Matt. 28:1-8; Mark 16:1-8; Luke 24:1-3, 12, 22-24; John 20:1-10.

     ¹² Matt. 28:9-10, 17-20; Mark 16:9-19; Luke 1:2; 24:13-51; John 20:14-29; 21:1-24; Acts 1:1-8, 22; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 10:39, 41; 13:31; 22:15; 26:16; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:5-8; 1 John 1:1-4.

     ¹³ Note, e.g., Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10; 1 Cor. 1:17; 2:2; 15:1-4; Gal. 3:1. Beyond the canonical Gospels, the other NT documents support but do not significantly add to the details.

     ¹⁴ Matt. 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mark 1:1, 14, 15; 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; 16:15; Acts 15:7; 20:24. A favored expression in Paul’s writings: Romans (9x), Corinthian letters (16x), Galatians (7x), Ephesians (4x), Philippians (9x), Colossians (2x), Thessalonian letters (8x), 1-2 Timothy (4x), Philemon (1x). Elsewhere in the NT only 1 Pet. 4:17; Rev. 14:6.

     ¹⁵ Matt. 11:5; Luke 1:19; 2:10; 3:18; 4:18, 43; 7:22; 8:1; 9:6; 16:16; 20:1; Acts 5:42; 8:4, 12, 25, 35, 40; 10:36; 11:20; 13:32; 14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18. In Paul: Romans (3x), Corinthians letters (8x), Galatians (7x), Ephesians (2x), 1 Thessalonians (1x). Elsewhere in the NT only Heb. 4:2, 6; 1 Pet. 1:12, 25; 4:6; Rev. 10:7; 14:6.

     ¹⁶ Note esp. 1 Cor. 1:17–2:2. To the Jewish mind this was a “scandal” or “offense” [σκάνδαλον] (cf. Deut. 21:22-23; Gal. 3:13), and to the non-Jews, who prized strength and victory over weakness and defeat, it was considered “absurd” or “foolish” [μωρία].

     ¹⁷ Matt. 12:38-40; 16:21-23; 17:9, 12, 22, 23; 20:18-19; 21:37-39; 26:2; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:32-34, 45; 14:8, 27-28; Luke 9:22; 18:31-33; 24:6b-8; John 2:19-22; 3:14.

     ¹⁸ Luke 24:27, 44-47; John 20:9; Acts 2:23-35; 8:35; 13:27-41; 17:2-3; 18:28; 28:23; 1 Cor. 15:3-4.

     ¹⁹ Matt. 27:35-50, 54-61; Mark 15:24-47; Luke 23:32-55; John 19:17-42.

     ²⁰ If Pilate’s statement Ἔχετε κουστωδίαν (Matt. 27:65) is interpreted as an indicative, “You have a guard” (ESV, N/ASV, N/KJV, N/RSV), it could be referring to Jewish temple guards. But if the statement is an imperative, “Have a guard” (CSB, NET, NIV), the rest of the narrative makes better sense in view of the “soldiers” [στρατιῶται] (Matt. 28:12; cf. 8:9; 27:27; Mark 15:16; Luke 7:8; 23:36; John 19:2, 23-24, 32, 34) answerable to the “governor” or “prefect” [ἡγεμών] (Matt. 28:14; cf. 27:2, 27). “The authorities’ plan works in part; no one steals the body” (D. M. Doriani, “Matthew,” in ESV Expository Commentary 435).

     ²¹ Matt. 28:1-8; Mark 16:1-8; Luke 24:1-3, 12, 22-24; John 20:1-10.

     ²² Matt. 28:1-20; Mark 16:1-19; Luke 1:2; 24:1-51; John 20:1–25:25; Acts 1:1-11, 22; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 10:39, 41; 13:31; 22:15; 26:16; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:3-8; 1 John 1:1-4. 

     ²³ Matt. 28:9-20; Mark 16:9-19; Luke 24:13-51; John 20:14–21:24; Acts 1:1-9.

Related Posts: The Resurrection of Jesus Part 2, Part 3 

Related articles: Wayne Jackson, Jesus Showed Himself Alive

 

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The Brutal Suffering and Death of Jesus the Christ (Part 2 of 2)

The Scourging 

Pilate had Jesus severely whipped.¹ Matthew and Mark employ the verbal φραγελλόω (to “flagellate,” “scourge”), whereas John uses μαστιγόω (to “flog,” or “beat with lashing [μάστιξ]”²), according to what Jesus himself had predicted.³ The Gospel writers are brief and pointed, without further description. The original reading audiences would have been all too familiar with the brutality of the Romans and already knew the horrific details. For modern readers, however, it is helpful to hear the words in the context of the first-century Roman world and appreciate the impact these simple statements would almost certainly have had.

The Romans used the Latin term verberatio for this savage beating, brutal enough to cause death in many cases (see Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 4.15). The instrument was a flagellum or flagrum, a short whip with three or more single or braided leather strands of varying lengths, with iron balls or pieces of sharp bone to lacerate. The victim was stripped of his clothing, with his hands bound to an upright post. “The back, buttocks, and legs were flogged either by two soldiers (lictors) or by one who alternated positions. The severity of the scourging depended on the disposition of the lictors and was intended to weaken the victim to a state just short of collapse or death.”⁴

Medically, as the victim was beaten, “the iron balls would cause deep contusions,” and the leather straps and sharp bones “would cut into the skin and subcutaneous tissues.” As the beating continued, “the lacerations would tear into the underlying skeletal muscles and produce quivering ribbons of bleeding flesh. Pain and blood loss generally set the stage for circulatory shock. The extent of blood loss may very well have determined how long the victim would survive on the cross.”⁵

Further Torture, Humiliation, and Death

Afterwards the soldiers stripped Jesus (again), put a twisted crown of thorns on his head and mocked him, spat on him, struck him on the head with a reed, and beat him with their hands.⁶ Jesus was then forced to carry the implement upon which he would be executed (John 19:17), probably the 75-125 lb. (35-60 kg) crossbeam (patibulum).⁷ Apparently weakened by extreme blood loss and fatigue, someone else (Simon of Cyrene) was conscripted to take it the rest of the way.⁸ “The physical and mental abuse meted out by the Jews and the Romans, as well as the lack of food, water, and sleep, also contributed to his generally weakened state. Therefore, even before the actual crucifixion, Jesus’ physical condition was at least serious and possibly critical.”⁹

Jesus was then crucified.¹⁰ “Death by crucifixion was one of the cruelest forms of execution humanity has ever devised.”¹¹  Tapered iron spikes of approximately 7 inches (17-18 cm)¹² were driven through the victim’s “hands” [χεῖρας] and “feet” [πόδας],¹³ affixing him to the wooden cross [σταυρός] and serving the twofold purpose of immobilization and torture – no defense against aggressive insects and other scavengers. 

It is commonly believed the spikes would have been driven through the wrists rather than the palms, since the weight of the body would cause the nails to rip through the flesh of the hands. While the term χείρ could be used for any part of the hand, incl. a “finger” (Luke 15:22) and in the plural “wrists” (Acts 12:7),¹⁴ it is not a forgone conclusion that the spikes would not and could not have been driven through the palms. Ropes were often used to hold the limbs in place, and the weight of the body would have put more pressure on the nailed feet than the hands. The biblical record employs the same word for Jesus’ crucified “hands” (Luke 24:39, 40; John 20:20, 25, 27) that consistently applies elsewhere specifically to his hands rather than his wrists.¹⁵

The bitter, perfumed wine [οἶνος] and the vinegar [ὄξος] offered to Jesus at the cross¹⁶ were not acts of compassion but further attempts to taunt him and to increase his suffering.¹⁷ The victim of a Roman crucifixion would die of muscle spasms, loss of bodily fluids, organ failure, and/or asphyxia, taking between three hours to four days to expire.¹⁸

To hasten the process, the legs would be broken below the knees to prevent the victim from pushing up on his feet to facilitate breathing (John 19:31-32). Jesus died after about six hours of suffering on the cross (Mark 15:25, 33-37, 42) without his legs being broken, and his death was confirmed by a centurion (Mark 15:39, 44-45) and a Roman soldier’s spear thrust into his side (John 19:33-37).¹⁹

Is there such a thing as a person who would actually prefer wasting away in pain on a cross—dying limb by limb one drop of blood at a time—rather than dying quickly? Would any human being willingly choose to be fastened to that cursed tree, especially after the beating that left him deathly weak, deformed, swelling with vicious welts on shoulders and chest, and struggling to draw every last, agonizing breath? Anyone facing such a death would plead to die rather than mount the cross. 

--Seneca the Younger (ca. 4 BC–AD 65), Epistulae morales 101.14.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1. It is interesting that Luke, the compassionate medical-healer, does not mention this in the trial account other than the Lord’s earlier prophetic statement (Luke 18:33). See K. L. Moore, "What Do We Know About Luke? (Part 2)," Moore Perspective (2 March 2022), <Link>.

     ² Cf. Acts 22:24; Heb. 11:36.

     ³ Matt. 20:19; Mark 10:34; Luke 18:33; cp. also Matt. 10:17; 23:34.

     ⁴ W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1457.

     ⁵ Ibid. See also D. McClister, “The Scourging of Jesus,” Truth Magazine 44:1 (Jan. 2000): 11-12.

     ⁶ Matt. 27:27-30; Mark 15:16-20; John 19:1-5.

     ⁷ An entire Roman cross could weigh over 135 kg (300 lb.), so it was the crossbeam, weighing approximately 35-60 kg (75-125 lb.), that was typically carried. See Plutarch, De sera 554; Titus Maccius Plautus, Miles gloriosus 358-360; Mostellaria 56-57; cf. Sverre Bøe, Cross-Bearing in Luke WUNT 278 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010): 63-71.

     ⁸ Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26. See K. L. Moore, “The Legacy of Simon the Cyrenian,” Moore Perspective (27 May 2020), <Link>.

     ⁹ W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1458.

     ¹⁰ Matt. 27:33-50; Mark 15:22-39; Luke 23:32-49; John 19:18-30; cf. also Matt. 20:19; 23:34; 26:2; 27:22-44; 28:5; Mark 15:13-32; 16:6; Luke 23:21, 23, 33; 24:7, 20; Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10.

     ¹¹ C. L. Blomberg, op cit. 401.

     ¹² The evidence comes from an ossuary discovered in a Jerusalem tomb in 1968, containing the remains of a first-century crucified man with the spike still lodged in his heel bones. See Vassilios Tzaferis, “Crucifixion—The Archaeological Evidence,” Biblical Archaeology Review 11:1 (Jan./Feb. 1985), <Web>. The skeleton of another crucified man was discovered in 2017 in the village of Fenstanton in Cambridgeshire, England, dating back to the second–fourth centuries, with the spike also lodged in the heel bone. See Livia Gershon, “Rare Physical Evidence of Roman Crucifixion,” Smithsonian Magazine (10 Dec. 2021), <Web>.  

     ¹³ Luke 24:39, 40; John 20:20, 25, 27.

     ¹⁴ Cp. Gen. 24:22; 38:28, 30; Jer. 40:4; cf. John 11:44.

     ¹⁵ Matt. 8:3; 9:18; 14:31; 19:13, 15; Mark 1:41; 5:23; 6:2, 5; 7:32; 8:23, 25; 10:16; Luke 4:40; 5:13; 13:13; 24:50. The evidence of the celebrated Shroud of Turin is disputable. Moreover, the Romans did not practice a uniform method of securing victims to the instruments of death of various shapes and positions. 

     ¹⁶ Matt. 27:34, 48; Mark 15:23, 36; Luke 23:36; John 19:29-30.

     ¹⁷ These were not thirst quenchers (note John 19:28) but would have increased dehydration (C. L. Blomberg, op cit. 402, 404).

     ¹⁸ F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers, “The history and pathology of crucifixion,” SAMJ 93:12 (2003): 938-41.

     ¹⁹ “The Roman guard would not leave the victim until they were sure of his death …. Since no one was intended to survive crucifixion, the body was not released to the family until the soldiers were sure that the victim was dead. By custom, one of the Roman guards would pierce the body with a sword or lance. Traditionally, this had been considered a spear wound to the heart through the right side of the chest—a fatal wound …” (W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1459-60). Also present at the cross to witness Jesus’ death was his mother and her sister, John and his mother (Salome?), Mary Magdalene, Mary the wife of Cleopas and mother of James the Less and Jose[s/ph], additional women, and perhaps other acquaintances (Matt. 27:55-56; Mark 15:40; Luke 23:49; John 19:25-26).

Related Posts: Brutal Suffering & Death of Jesus (Part 1), The Christianization of a Pagan Symbol, Chronological Confusion 

Related articles/documentaries: Scott Stripling & Jonathan Moore, Crucifixion of Jesus Explained

 

Image credit: https://www.josh.org/resurrection-crucifixion-details/