Discerning OT Use in the NT
There is no consensus among biblical scholars about how to identify and categorize the varied uses of OT passages in the NT. With some degree of ambiguity, analysts speak of citations, quotations, paraphrases, allusions, verbal parallels, thematic echoes, and recollections. Quotations can be subcategorized as direct quotes, loose or paraphrastic quotes, formulaic citations (with an introductory statement), and informal citations (without an introductory statement). Adding to the confusion and the inconsistency of proposed classifications are the varying ways in which a number of biblical texts have been employed, merging into multiple categories.2
For our purposes, keeping it simple, the identifying labels are limited to “quotes” (whether direct, loose, paraphrase, etc.) and “allusions” (whether echoes, parallels, recollections, summaries, etc.). There are potentially up to sixty-eight OT quotes and twenty-one OT allusions in Romans.
Use of the OT in Romans
The highest concentration is in chapters 9–11, where Paul addresses Israel’s place in salvation history: fourteen citations in chapter 9, eleven in chapter 10, twelve in chapter 11, for a combined total of thirty-seven. A disproportionate number also occurs in chapter 3, with eleven citations, providing the biblical framework for Paul’s explanation of how God makes people righteous. There are no scripture references in chapters 6 and 16, and only one apparent allusion in chapter 5.
In Romans Paul borrows from nineteen OT books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Deuteronomy, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Chronicles, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Nahum, Habakkuk, Malachi. Heaviest usage comes from Isaiah, Psalms, and Deuteronomy.3 The scripture references below are numbered according to the English Bible.
|
Romans text |
OT reference |
form |
|
Rom. 1:17 |
Habakkuk 2:4b |
quote |
|
Rom. 1:23 |
Psalm 106:20 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 2:6 |
Psalm 62:12/Proverbs 24:12 |
quote |
|
Rom. 2:11 |
2 Chronicles 19:7 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 2:24 |
Isaiah 52:5 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 2:24 |
Ezekiel 36:20-23? |
allusion |
|
Rom. 3:4a |
Psalm 116:11 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 3:4b |
Psalm 51:4 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:10 |
Ecclesiastes 7:20 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 3:10-12 |
Psalm 14:1-3/53:1-3 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:13 |
Psalm 5:9 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:13 |
Psalm 140:3 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:14 |
Psalm 10:7 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:15 |
Proverbs 1:16 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:15-17 |
Isaiah 59:7-8 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:18 |
Psalm 36:1 |
quote |
|
Rom. 3:20 |
Psalm 143:2 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 4:3 |
Genesis 15:6 |
quote |
|
Rom. 4:7-8 |
Psalm 32:1-2 |
quote |
|
Rom. 4:9 |
Genesis 15:6 |
quote |
|
Rom. 4:11 |
Genesis 17:10-11 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 4:17 |
Genesis 17:5 |
quote |
|
Rom. 4:18 |
Genesis 15:5b |
quote |
|
Rom. 4:22 |
Genesis 15:6b |
quote |
|
Rom. 4:25 |
Isaiah 53:4-5 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 5:12 |
Genesis 2:17; 3:19 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 7:2-3 |
Deuteronomy 22:22 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 7:7 |
Exodus 20:17 |
quote |
|
Rom. 7:11 |
Genesis 3:13 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 8:33 |
Isaiah 50:8-9 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 8:34 |
Psalm 110:1; Isaiah 53:12 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 8:36 |
Psalm 44:22 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:7 |
Genesis 21:12 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:9 |
Genesis 18:10, 14 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:12 |
Genesis 25:23 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:13 |
Malachi 1:2-3 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:15 |
Exodus 33:19 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:17 |
Exodus 9:16 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:20 |
Isaiah 29:16; 45:9 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 9:25 |
Hosea 2:23 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:26 |
Hosea 1:10 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:27-28 |
Isaiah 10:22-23 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:28 |
Isaiah 28:22 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 9:29 |
Isaiah 1:9 |
quote |
|
Rom. 9:33 |
Isaiah 8:14; 28:16 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:5 |
Leviticus 18:5 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:6-8 |
Deuteronomy 9:4a; 30:12-14 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:11 |
Isaiah 28:16 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:13 |
Joel 2:32 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:15 |
Isaiah 52:7; Nahum 1:15 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:16 |
Isaiah 53:1a |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:18 |
Psalm 19:4 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:19 |
Deuteronomy 32:21 |
quote |
|
Rom. 10:20 |
Isaiah 65:1 |
quote |
|
Rom.10:21 |
Isaiah 65:2 |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:1-2 |
Psalm 94:14; 1 Samuel 12:22 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 11:3 |
1 Kings 19:10, 14 |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:4 |
1 Kings 19:18 |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:8 |
Deuteronomy 29:4 |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:8 |
Isaiah 29:10 |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:9-10 |
Psalm 69:22-23 |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:11 |
Deuteronomy 32:21 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 11:26-27 |
Isaiah 59:20-21 (Psalm 14:7; 53:6) |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:34-35 |
Isaiah 40:13 |
quote |
|
Rom. 11:34-35 |
Job 41:11 |
quote |
|
Rom. 12:16-17 |
Proverbs 3:4, 7 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 12:19 |
Leviticus 19:18a |
allusion |
|
Rom. 12:19 |
Deuteronomy 32:35 |
quote |
|
Rom. 12:20 |
Proverbs 25:21-22 |
quote |
|
Rom. 13:9 |
Exodus 20:13-17; Deut. 5:17-21; Lev. 19:18 |
quote |
|
Rom. 14:11 |
Isaiah 45:23 |
quote |
|
Rom. 14:13 |
Leviticus 19:14 |
allusion |
|
Rom. 15:3 |
Psalm 69:9 |
quote |
|
Rom. 15:9 |
2 Samuel 22:50; Psalm 18:49 |
quote |
|
Rom. 15:10 |
Deuteronomy 32:43 |
quote |
|
Rom. 15:11 |
Psalm 117:1 |
quote |
|
Rom. 15:12 |
Isaiah 11:10 |
quote |
|
Rom. 15:21 |
Isaiah 52:15 |
quote |
Conclusion
Paul’s prolific use of the perfect passive indicative formula γέγραπται (“it is written”)4 consistently refers to the sacred writings having been recorded in the past with current and ongoing applicability. “For whatever was formerly written was written for our instruction, so that through the perseverance and through the encouragement of the scriptures we may have hope” (Rom. 15:4). Although no longer binding as a set of ordinances and rituals (Rom. 6:14; 7:4), these OT writings are holy, just, and good (Rom. 7:12) and remain historically, prophetically, and instructionally useful.
As “a living voice,”5 the scriptures, “according to Paul, are nothing other than God speaking to his people in the present through his words of judgment and salvation to Israel in the past.”6 May we have the same conviction, reverence, and reliance on God’s inspired word as Paul has demonstrated in Romans.
--Kevin L. Moore
Endnotes:
1 Beyond Romans, the most OT citations in the NT are in Matthew, Acts, and Hebrews respectively. Notwithstanding possible allusions and verbal parallels, there are no OT quotations in Philippians, Colossians, 1-2 Thessalonians, Titus, Philemon, 1-3 John, Jude, and Revelation. See Terry Enns, “Romans: the Most OT Book in the NT,” Words of Grace (13 May 2015), <Link>.
2 See Douglas S. Huffman, Understanding the New Testament Use of the Old Testament: Forms, Features, Framings, and Functions (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2024) 25-43.
3 The quotations vary according to (a) agreement with the LXX and Hebrew text (3:13; 4:17, 18; 7:7; 8:36; 9:7, 12, 15; 10:13; 13:9; 15:3); (b) agreement with the LXX against the Hebrew text (4:3, 7-8; 9:29; 10:16, 21; 12:20; 15:10, 21); (c) agreement with the Hebrew text against the LXX (11:35); (d) at variance with both where they agree (3:4, 10-12, 18; 9:13, 25; 10:5, 19; 11:3, 8; 15:9, 11); (e) at variance with both where they vary (1:17; 2:24; 3:14-17; 9:9, 17, 26-28, 33; 10:6-8, 11, 15, 20; 11:4, 9-10, 26-27, 34; 12:19; 14:11; 15:12). See E. Earle Ellis, Paul’s Use of the OT (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991) 150-54.
4 Rom. 1:17; 2:24; 3:4, 10; 4:17; 8:36; 9:13, 33; 10:15; 11:8, 26; 12:19; 14:11; 15:3, 9, 21. Scripture citations are the author’s own translation.
5 Richard B. Hays, “Three Dramatic Roles: The Law in Romans 3–4,” in James D. G. Dunn, ed. Paul and the Mosaic Law (Grand Rapids; Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1996) 161.
6 Mark A. Seifrid, “Romans,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, eds. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007) 608.
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