The New Testament as Fulfilled Prophecy

     God’s covenant with Israel was established about fifteen centuries before the Christian era (Ex. 34:10, 27; Deut. 5:1-3) and was a temporary measure to keep faith alive until the advent of the promised Messiah (cf. Gal. 3:16–4:7; Heb. 8:6-13).¹ About six centuries before Christ, the promise of a “new covenant” was issued (Jer. 31:31-34; cf. 32:40; Ezek. 16:60-62; 37:26; Rom. 11:27). This promise was fulfilled in Christ and ratified at his death (Heb. 8:6; 9:15-17; 12:24; 13:20).² First-century writers affirm the arrival of this new and better covenant (2 Cor. 3:6; Heb. 8:6-13; cf. Gal. 4:24-26).

     When the sacred writings of Christians were placed alongside those of the Jews to comprise a unified canon,³ it was necessary to distinguish between the two with appropriate designations. A significant term in the Hebrew scriptures relating to God’s relationship with his people is běrît, with its Greek equivalent diathēkē, meaning “covenant.” Since the expression “new covenant” (Jer. 31:31; Heb. 8:8; 2 Cor. 3:6) implies that the former one is “old” (cf. Heb. 8:13; 2 Cor. 3:14), it was natural to use this terminology for the respective divisions of the Christian canon.

     Among Latin speakers (and in the Latin Vulgate) the corresponding word was testamentum, thus the English appellations “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The KJV uses the word “testament” instead of “covenant” to translate diathēkē in several passages (cf. Matt. 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 3:6; 2 Cor. 3:14; Heb. 7:22; 9:15, 20; Rev. 11:19). 

     While the Old Testament unfolds the early history of God’s people, the New Testament provides the rest of the story. It was not an afterthought or the invention of 1st-century Jesus followers but has been a critical part of the divine plan all along.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See The Old and New Covenants. The Hebrew word běrît applies to agreements between certain parties, involving conditions and promises (cf. Gen. 6:18; 9:9-16; 15:18; 17:2-21; 21:27, 32; 26:28; 31:44; Ex. 2:24; 6:4-5; 19:5; Num. 25:12-13; et al.). It is rendered in the LXX by diathēkē, which in secular Greek applied to an agreement related to a testament or will. See K. L. Moore, Getting to Know the Bible 22-26. The relationship between the covenant of Israel and the Law of Moses and the respective questions of continuance and relevance are heavily debated in the religious world today. In the context of Pauline studies, much discussion has been generated in fairly recent years about Paul’s view of the law in the setting of 1st-century Judaism. See Was Paul Anti-Law? 

     ² Cf. Matt. 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25.

     ³ See Canonization of the NT Part 1 and Part 2.

Related Posts: Is Moses' Law Still Binding? 

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Nahum

     The prophet Nahum was a contemporary of Jeremiah, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. His hometown was Elkosh (1:1), believed to have been somewhere in Galilee, perhaps Capernaum (meaning “town of Nahum”). His written prophecy was recorded after the fall of the Egyptian No Amon (a.k.a. Thebes) in 663 BC (alluded to in 3:8-10) and before the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC.

     Nahum’s message is written in poetic style and concerns the destruction of Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire.¹ At the time Nineveh was one of the oldest inhabited cities on earth, having been built by Nimrod son of Cush, son of Ham, son of Noah (Gen. 10:6-11).

     The name Nahum, meaning “comfort” or “consolation,” is an abbreviated form of Nehemiah (meaning “comfort of Yahweh”). Nahum’s words were certainly no consolation to the Assyrians, but did bring comfort to those who were tormented by the Assyrians (cf. 3:19).

The Background

     The rising Empire of Assyria had repeatedly afflicted the Northern Kingdom of Israel, conquering and exiling them by 722 BC (2 Kings 15:19–17:23). With divine judgment on the horizon, God sent a prophet to Nineveh to call them to repentance (Jonah 1:1-2). Despite his reluctance, Jonah’s preaching was so effective that “they turned from their evil ways” (Jonah 3:10).² Unfortunately, about a century later they had reverted back to their corrupt behavior and continued to afflict the Southern Kingdom of Judah.

The Message

     The prophecy begins with “God” [Heb. el] (1:2a), followed by thirteen references to Yahweh [God’s personal name] (1:2b–3:5). There can be no question about the source of the prophecy and the executer of its fulfillment. Divine attributes are highlighted, namely God’s holiness (1:2a), wrath (1:2b), longsuffering (1:3a), justice (1:3b), sovereignty (1:3c), power (1:4), and goodness (1:7).

     Whether God’s human creation cooperates or chooses to rebel, “The LORD has His way” (1:3c). “The LORD is good, A stronghold in the day of trouble; And He knows those who trust in Him” (1:7). Nineveh’s doom is assured: “an utter end of its place” (1:8b); “an utter end of it” (1:9b); “they will be cut down” (1:12b); “utterly cut off” (1:15c). The people of God are reassured: “For now I will break off his yoke from you, And burst your bonds apart” (1:13); “For the LORD will restore the excellence of Jacob Like the excellence of Israel” (2:2a) – a promise involving the whole nation.

     What a terrifying revelation to hear, “‘Behold, I am against you,’ says the LORD of hosts …” (2:13a; 3:5a). The instrument of divine judgment is the combined forces of the Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians (2:3-13). The result is that “Nineveh of old …. is empty, desolate, and waste!” (2:8-10; 3:7b).

     The Assyrian capital was to reap what it had sown after about 130 years of tyranny. “O king of Assyria …. Your injury has no healing, Your wound is severe. All who hear news of you Will clap their hands over you, For upon whom has not your wickedness passed continually?” (3:18-19). Nineveh fell in 612 BC. Today it still lies in ruins near the city of Mosul in Northern Iraq.

Lessons to Learn

1. God is in control (1:3, 9; cf. John 19:11; Rom. 13:1).

2. God is patient, but his patience is not limitless (1:3, 7-8; 2:13; 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:22; 2 Pet. 3:9-10).

3. God holds sinners accountable (1:2, 3, 9; 2:13; 3:5, 7; cf. Num. 32:23; 2 Cor. 5:10).

4. God hates evil and so should we (1:8-9; 2:13; 3:5; cf. Psa. 5:4-5).

5. God does not forsake his people (1:13, 15; 2:2; cf. Heb. 13:5).

6. God keeps his word (1:8, 9, 15; 2:13; 3:7, 19; cf. Rom. 3:4; Heb. 6:18).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Cf. Jonah 1:2; 3:10; Isa. 10:1-27; 14:24-27; Mic. 5:5-6.

     ² Scripture quotations are from the NKJV.

Related Posts: Minor Prophets 2, Isaiah 7:14

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Hebrew

     The first time the word “Hebrew” (Heb. Ibri’; Greek Hebraios) occurs in scripture, it is applied to Abram (Genesis 14:13). It is then employed as a designation for his descendants through Isaac and Jacob (Genesis 40:15) and also for their language (2 Kings 18:26). This term is most often used to distinguish the Israelite people from other nations (Exodus 1:19; 2:11; 1 Samuel 4:9; etc.), and also applies to the Jews of Palestine in contrast to Greek-speaking Jews (Acts 6:1).¹    

     The origin of the name is uncertain. It may have been derived from one of Abraham’s ancestors, Eber (Genesis 11:16). Those who came to be known as the Hebrews descended from Shem, who is called “the father of all the children of Eber” (Genesis 10:21). Another possibility is that Ibri’ is linked to a similar noun meaning “the region or country beyond,” referring to Abraham’s former homeland beyond the Euphrates (Joshua 24:2-3). It has also been suggested that the word is derived from a verb meaning “passing through” and came to describe Abraham and his descendants as sojourners (cf. Hebrews 11:13).

     The name “Israel” (Heb. Yisraêl’; Greek Israêl) means “Prince of God” and was first given to Jacob (Genesis 32:28; 35:10), then later used to designate Jacob’s descendants (Joshua 3:17). When the nation divided, the northern kingdom was called Israel in contrast to the southern kingdom of Judah (1 Kings 15:9). After the Babylonian exile, the united kingdom again carried the name Israel (Ezra 6:16). The word “Jew” (Heb. Yehudi’; Greek Ioudaios) is a form of the name Judah and was first applied to those of the separate kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 16:6; 25:25 KJV). During the Babylonian captivity and onward the name was extended to all the Israelites (cf. Esther 2:5; 3:4; 5:13; Ezra 4:12; etc.).

     While the ancient Jews adopted the Phoenician script in writing the Hebrew language, around the time of King David it developed into Paleo-Hebrew and was eventually replaced with the Aramaic script from which the modern Hebrew alphabet is derived. The Old Testament (also known as the Hebrew Bible) was originally written in Hebrew, except the Aramaic sections of Ezra (4:8–6:18; 7:12-26) and Daniel (2:4b–7:28). Following the Babylonian exile, Aramaic had replaced Hebrew as the everyday vernacular of the Palestinian Jews.²

     The earliest recorded words of God are in the Hebrew tongue. The LORD employed this language to communicate to Moses and the ancient prophets, who in turn used it to proclaim the divine message both orally and in written form. Jesus read and understood Hebrew (Luke 4:16-21); it was the sacred language of the synagogues where he regularly worshiped and taught (Matthew 4:23; 9:35; cf. Acts 15:21). In fact, the smallest stroke of the smallest letter of the Hebrew scriptures was important to him (Matthew 5:18).³

     Not everyone has to master the Hebrew language to understand the Old Testament, but somebody does! Let us be thankful for the scholars, the tools, the translations, and the resources that enable us to gain insight into the word of God in every language through which it has been conveyed.

-- Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The designation “Hellenist” (Greek Hellênistês) is similar to the words Hellênos (“Greek person”) and Hellênikos (“Greek language”), and generally refers to a Jew who settled in another country and adopted the Greek language and culture (cf. Acts 6:1; 9:29). It is sometimes rendered “Grecian” (KJV).

     ² See Aramaic. Of the ancient Semitic languages, both Hebrew and Aramaic would be included among the Northwest Semitic languages, along with Amorite, Syriac, Canaanite, Ugaritic, Moabite, Ammonite, and Edomite. The East Semitic languages would include Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Arabic would be a South Semitic language. See Eugene H. Merrill, "Biblical Hebrew and the Semitic Languages," JETS 62.2 (2019): 251-67.

     ³ After the Jewish temple was destroyed by the Romans in AD 70, Hebrew was only used for religious literature and ceremonies until it was revived in the mid-nineteenth century as a colloquial language. Today over seven million people, mostly in Israel, speak Hebrew.

Related Posts: Aramaic, Greek NT Translated

Related articles: Dave Miller's Hebrew Vowels

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