Introducing the Letter to the Galatians (Part 1 of 3)

Distinctive Features 

1. Unlike the other Pauline letters, Galatians is addressed to multiple congregations [ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις] in a broad geographical region.

2. Unlike the other Pauline congregational letters, these churches are designated provincially (“of Galatia”) without spiritual modifiers like those employed elsewhere.¹ This may be due to the present condition of these readers, having departed from the truth of the gospel (1:6 ff.; 3:1; 4:9-11, 20; 5:4).

 

3. Unlike most other Pauline congregational letters, there is no introductory thanksgiving in Galatians.² The apostle’s frustration at the time with these “senseless Galatians” (3:1) is probably why.

4. Galatians is among the eight Pauline letters that mention one or more co-senders³ but the only one wherein the names are not recorded. In 1:2 the apostle includes with himself “all the brothers with me,” which is most likely a reference to his immediate colleagues as suggested by the fact that in the other letters co-senders are coworkers and by the comparable expression in Phil. 4:21-22, “the brothers with me,” in contrast to “every saint.” 

5. The most extensive supplement to Paul’s standard opening greeting is found in Galatians, to which he has added a long description of Christ’s work, its purpose, and its divine sanction: “… who gave himself for our sins, so that he might deliver us out of the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father, to whom [be] the glory forever and ever. Amen” (1:4-5). This “at once thrusts the purpose of the letter to the fore: the issue between Paul and the Galatians is the significance of Christ” (H. N. Ridderbos, Galatia 43).

Authorship

There is no significant dispute over authorship, as the author explicitly identifies himself as Paul (1:1; 5:2) and most NT scholars count Galatians among the principal Pauline letters. 

That secretarial assistance was used is indicated by the author calling special attention to the fact that he is signing off with his own distinctive handwriting (6:11).⁴ The verb ἔγραψα (lit. “I wrote”) appears to be an epistolary aorist, alluding to the subscription that Paul is presently writing (cf. Rom. 15:15; 1 Cor. 5:11; 9:15; Philem. 19, 21). The reference to “large letters” calls attention to his distinctive writing style, but the reason is subject to conjecture, whether it was due to poor eyesight (cf. L. A. Jervis, Galatians117), poor penmanship (A. Deissmann, Light 166), or his desire to particularly emphasize the material at the end of the letter (D. J. Moo, R. P. Martin, and J. L. Wu, Romans Galatians 130).

Allusion to “the brothers” in 1:2 could be suggestive of multiple secretaries, as multiple copies of the letter would have been needed for the plurality of Galatian churches (cf. Acts 15:22-23). But Gal. 6:11 seems more indicative of a single manuscript that would have been circulated. 

These “brothers” were the apostle’s immediate colleagues with whom he no doubt discussed the contents of the letter and perhaps solicited their collaboration in its composition (cf. 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1). Paul was careful to designate the co-senders as “all” the brothers with him, likely to emphasize that he was not alone in what he was advocating and had the solid support of each of his colleagues. It is hard to imagine that those who traveled with Paul as partners in his apostolic work exercised no influence on him whatsoever, even in the writing of his letters. It is much more conceivable that the stimulation was reciprocal and these ministerial colleagues mutually formed a linguistic and theological environment.⁵

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Unless noted otherwise, scripture quotations are the author's own translation. In the other Pauline congregational letters the addressees are described as per the following: “beloved of God, called saints” (Rom. 1:7); “of God … sanctified in Christ Jesus, called saints” (1 Cor. 1:1); “of God … with all the saints” (2 Cor. 1:1); “to the saints … and faithful in Christ Jesus” (Eph. 1:1); “to all the saints in Christ Jesus” (Phil. 1:1); “saints and faithful brothers in Christ” (Col. 1:2); “in God the Father and Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Thess. 1:1); “in God our Father and Lord Jesus Christ” (2 Thess. 1:1). 

     ² There is no introductory thanksgiving in 1 Timothy or in Titus either, but Galatians is the only Pauline letter addressed to a Christian community that does not begin by thanking God for them or expressing a blessing. 

     ³ Cf. 1 Cor. 1:1; 2 Cor. 1:1; Gal. 1:2; Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; Philem. 1. 

     ⁴ Not all scholars, however, concede that this is indicative of scribal aid (cf. G. S. Duncan, Galatians 188-89; R. N. Longenecker, “Ancient Amanuenses” 291). 

     ⁵ See J. A. Loubser, “Media Criticism and the Myth of Paul” 1-16. Divine inspiration cannot be limited to just one person at a time but necessarily operated through anyone and everyone involved in the production of inspired scripture (2 Tim. 3:16).

Related Posts: Studying Romans & Galatians: Part 1, Part 2, Introducing Galatians Part 2, Part 3

 

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Studying Romans and Galatians: An Introduction (Part 2 of 2)

Thematic Overlaps 

The lengthy correspondence to the Romans shares the closest literary affinity with the briefer letter to the Galatians and appears to be a further development of the themes introduced therein.¹ Both letters address tensions involving ethnic Jews and non-Jews and what it means to be a genuine follower of Jesus in the mid-first-century Mediterranean world. Both letters share the common theme of God’s righteous justification through faith centered on the gospel of Christ rather than the old-covenant Law of Moses.² Both letters highlight the antithesis between “flesh” [σάρξ] and “spirit” [πνεῦμα],³ and between “faith” [πίστις] and “works” [ἔργα] (of the Mosaic Law),⁴ including the example of Abraham’s faith,⁵ albeit “a faith working through love” (Gal. 5:6), with Christian “love” [ἀγάπη] being another shared theme.⁶ Probably the best commentary on Galatians is Romans, and vice versa.⁷

Distinctives

Despite thematic overlaps, the occasion of each letter and Paul’s relationships with the respective reading audiences were different. Paul knew the Galatian brethren personally, having spent considerable time with them and having led many of them to Christ. But he had not been involved in planting the church in Rome, had never been there, and was not directly acquainted with most of these Christians.

While Jew-Gentile friction was an underlying current of both letters, in Galatia this was instigated and fueled by the recent incursion of Judaizing teachers, and in Rome by the inevitable sociocultural differences among ethnically diverse believers with and without connections to Jewish ordinances and customs. In Galatia the central message of the gospel had been corrupted, whereas the situation in Rome was not as critical.

The tone of the respective letters is therefore quite different; Galatians is much more polemical.⁸ Paul was clearly disappointed and upset with the churches of Galatia, prompting rebukes, warnings, and corrective instruction with a sense of urgency. He was much calmer, more systematic, and encouraging with his words to the Romans, praising their faith and progress and seeking their acceptance and cooperation. 

To the Galatians he says, “You are observing days and months and seasons and years. I am fearing for you, lest in vain I have labored for you” (Gal. 4:10-11).⁹ But to the Romans he says, “for one person is esteeming a day over another day, but one person is esteeming every day alike; let each be fully convinced in his own mind” (Rom. 14:5). Why the difference? The non-Jewish Galatians had been misled to observe culturally-irrelevant Jewish rituals of the Mosaic system to supposedly merit divine favor. The apparent discord among the multi-ethnic Romans was a matter of cultural diversity unrelated to their common faith. Different circumstances call for different responses.¹⁰

--Kevin L. Moore

 

Endnotes:

     ¹ See J. B. Lightfoot, Epistles of Paul: Galatians 45-49. Galatians has been described as “Baby Romans” (Clyde M. Woods, FHU graduate class) and “a flamboyant younger sister of the more settled and reflective letter to Rome” (N. T. Wright, “The Letter to the Galatians,” in Between Two Horizons 205).

      ² Students of Pauline theology have historically understood “justification by faith” as the central focus of Paul’s thought. However, this teaching is developed in the polemical contexts of Galatians, Romans, and Philippians, where there is conflict with religious Judaism, but is absent from most of his extant writings. “It functions as a polemical doctrine … understandable only in the context of his controversies with Judaism and Jewish Christianity, and it is intended only for that purpose …” (H. Boers, The Justification of the Gentiles 30-31; cf. also F. F. Bruce, Romans 32-35).

     ³ Rom. 7:5–8:18; Gal. 3:3; 4:29; 5:16-17; 6:8.

     ⁴ Rom. 3:27; 9:32; Gal. 2:16; 3:2-5. Paul emphasizes in his writings certain types of works or deeds that contribute nothing to one’s salvation, e.g., works of the Law of Moses (Rom. 3:27; Gal. 2:16), works of human merit (Eph. 2:9; 2 Tim. 1:9; Tit. 3:5), and works of the flesh (Gal. 5:19-21). But he never understands “faith” as merely a mental assent to a doctrinal truth without an active response (cf. Gal. 5:6; Phil. 2:12; 1 Thess. 1:3), nor does he view the requirements of God as works that humans have devised to save themselves (cf. Eph. 2:10; Col. 1:10; Tit. 2:14). Paul defines what he means by “faith” [πίστις] at both the beginning and the end of his letter to the Romans, viz. “obedience of faith” [ὑπακοὴν πίστεως] (1:5; 16:26).  

     ⁵ Rom. 4:1-16; Gal. 3:6-18.

     ⁶ Rom. 12:9-10; 13:8-10; 14:15; Gal. 5:6-22.

     ⁷ “In order to interpret a text we are dependent on some overall understanding of its meaning that enables us to make sense of the individual parts and the way they are structured…. These letters have enough in common at a fundamental level to allow us to approach them with a single macro-structure” (H. Boers, The Justification of the Gentiles1-2).

     ⁸ The polemic of Romans 1:18-32 is indirectly in the third person and non-confrontational, and in Romans 2:1-5 is with an imaginary interlocutor, whereas in Galatians the polemic is pointedly direct.

     ⁹ Unless noted otherwise, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ¹⁰ Paul was in favor of the Law and its precepts with respect to those for whom it was an important part of their cultural heritage (i.e., within the context of ethnic Judaism), as long as it was not at variance with the Christian faith (cf. Acts 16:1-3; 18:18; 21:20-26; 1 Cor. 9:20). On the other hand, he was vehemently opposed to the enforcement of the Law’s ritualistic ordinances on those for whom these practices had no relevance (i.e., non-Jewish Christians), especially if the imposition of such created division in the church and supplanted reliance on God through Christ.

Related Posts: Studying Romans & Galatians (Part 1), Introducing Galatians Part 1

 

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Studying Romans and Galatians: An Introduction (Part 1 of 2)

Interpretive Approach

Our modern-day religious environment has been heavily influenced by Martin Luther’s abbreviated gospel of sola fide (“faith alone”) and the Calvinistic tenets of Reformed Theology, creating a hermeneutical framework through which Romans and Galatians are widely interpreted.¹ These letters have been exploited over the centuries and forced to address questions they were not designed to answer. But if we examine the texts through first-century (pre-denominational) lenses, and seek to comprehend what the inspired author intended to communicate to his original targeted audiences and how they would have understood the message in light of their particular circumstances, we will be better equipped to avoid anachronistic misconceptions and to make legitimate present-day application. 

The Setting of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians

Paul knew these disciples personally, having spent approximately six years in Southern Galatia with Barnabas (ca. 44-50), teaching the gospel, making disciples, and establishing churches in the cities of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts 13–14).² Not long thereafter Paul returned to the region with Silas to follow up on and encourage these brethren (Acts 15:36–16:6), revisiting them yet again about three years later on his way back to Ephesus (Acts 18:23). The Lord’s work in this area, challenged by unreceptive, resistant, and antagonistic Jews,³ was most successful among Gentiles.⁴ When Paul wrote his letter to the Galatian churches, he was clearly dismayed and frustrated with them for so readily embracing a perverted gospel propagated by intruding Judaizing teachers (Gal. 1:6-7; 3:1).⁵

The Setting of Paul’s Letter to the Romans

At the end of his third missionary campaign, after having sent his letter to the Galatians and before heading to Jerusalem with a collection of funds for needy saints of Judea, Paul spent the three winter months of 56-57 in Corinth (Acts 20:2-3; cf. 1 Cor. 4:18-19; 16:2-7). During this time, while hosted in the home of Gaius, he and a scribe named Tertius penned the letter to the saints at Rome (Rom. 1:1; 16:22-23). The Lord’s church was already established in the imperial city, comprised of multiple house churches with members of both Jewish and non-Jewish backgrounds.⁶

Although Paul had never been to Rome, he had strongly desired for many years to visit these Christians (Rom. 1:10-15; 15:22-32), including several with whom he had formed relationships during his extensive missionary endeavors (cf. Rom. 16:3-15). Having invested nearly a quarter of a century spreading the gospel east of Rome in the regions of Syria, Arabia,⁷ Judea, Cilicia, Cyprus, Galatia, Macedonia, Achaia, Asia, and Illyricum (Acts 9:19–20:3; Rom. 15:19; Gal. 1:17–2:11), leaving behind self-sustaining congregations of the Lord’s church under capable leadership, the missionary-apostle was now setting his sights on unreached territories as far west as Spain (Rom. 15:20-28). 

Just as Syrian Antioch had been his base of operations in the east,⁸ he hoped that Rome could serve in this capacity in the west (Rom. 15:24, 30-33). In addition to securing their support, Paul felt the need to address and try to resolve apparent discord among brethren at different levels of understanding, faith, and conviction (Rom. 14:1–15:13). Moreover, in view of his ongoing conflicts with Judaizers and their destructive influence potentially preceding him to Rome (cf. Rom. 3:8; 4:9-12; 16:17-18),⁹ Paul also made sure to affirm and defend his authority as a divinely-appointed apostle and the integrity of the gospel message he preached (Rom. 1:1-17; 2:16; 11:13; 15:16-29; 16:25).

The categorical partitioning of the Roman disciples into ethnic “Jews” and “Gentiles,” as is common among many commentators, is unrealistic and overly simplistic. The more likely scenario is a collectivity of multiethnic believers that included Jewish brethren clinging to old traditions and regarded as “ultra-conservative” or even “legalistic,”¹⁰ other Jewish Christians distancing themselves from their former ways of Judaism and regarded as “progressive” or even “liberal,”¹¹ non-Jewish disciples leaning in both directions,¹² and more moderate brethren, like Prisca and Aquila, who were Jewish Christians already in line with Paul’s teaching and on good terms with Gentile brethren (Rom. 16:4).¹³

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ For example, the so-called “Romans Road to Salvation,” popular in a number of denominational tracts and webpages, cherry-picks selected verses from Romans to create a seemingly biblical case for belief-only salvation, but in so doing context is ignored and the multiple allusions to obedience, incl. baptism, are curiously omitted (cf., e.g., Rom. 1:5; 2:8; 6:1-18; 10:16; 16:19, 26).

     ² See K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 130-37, 242-45.

     ³ Acts 13:45-46, 50-51; 14:2, 4-6, 19.

     ⁴ Acts 13:42-49, 52; 14:27; 15:3, 12; Gal. 2:2-5; 4:8; 5:2; 6:12. Nevertheless, there appears to have been some receptive Jews as well (Acts 13:43; 14:1; 16:1).

     ⁵ Judaizers were Jewish converts to Christianity who held on to tenets of the Jewish religion and tried to bind them on non-Jewish Christians as conditions of salvation and fellowship (cf. Acts 15:1-5, 24; 2 Cor. 10–13; Gal. 1:7; 2:4-5, 11-16; 3:1; 4:17; 5:7-12; 6:12-13; Phil. 3:1-11).

     ⁶ Cf. Rom. 16:5, 14, 15. Note the alternating focus on Gentile Christians (1:5-6, 13; 11:13-24; 15:14-21) and Jewish Christians (2:17; 6:14-15; 7:4; 16:3, 7, 11).

     ⁷ See K. L. Moore, “What did Paul do in Arabia?” Moore Perspective (22 June 2016), <Link>.

     ⁸ Acts 13:1-3; 14:26; 15:30-35, 40; 18:22-23; cf. 11:25-30; 15:2-3.

     ⁹ By early 50 Judaizers from Judea had caused problems in Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:1-5, 23), then moved west through Galatia (Acts 16:4; Gal. 1:6); by late 56 they had generated strife as far west as Achaia (2 Cor. 10–13), and by the early 60s were a potential threat in Macedonia (Phil. 3:1-11). Before heading to Rome, on his way eastward to the center of Judaism and Jewish Christianity, Paul was ready for arrest and even martyrdom for his faith and mission (Acts 20:24; 21:13) but also requested the prayers of the Roman brethren for deliverance (Rom. 15:30-33).

     ¹⁰ Early Christians in and/or from Judea would fit into this category (cf. Acts 11:1-3; 21:17-26). The Judaizers would be an extreme version of this.

     ¹¹ They would be comparable to the recipients of the epistle of James, antinomian-libertarian Jewish believers lax in observable demonstrations of faith (cf. Jas. 1:22–2:26). “Every truth has its perversion, and the doctrine of salvation by faith may easily have degenerated into the acceptance of a creed without a corresponding holiness of life. James does not deny the necessity of faith. He insists that faith must produce results” (M. C. Tenney, NT Survey [Rev.] 266-67). 

     ¹² These would be indicative of the respective audiences of Galatians and 1 Corinthians.

     ¹³ The saints at Philippi would also fit into this category. Paul’s correspondence to them is the most personal of any of his letters addressed to a Christian community but also includes pleas for unity in the midst of potential discord (Phil. 1:27; 2:1-18; 3:15-17; 4:1-3), with warnings of outside opposition and exhortations to faithfulness (1:28-30; 3:2-7, 18-19; 4:4-9).

Related Posts: Studying Romans & Galatians Part 2

 

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The Original Structure of the Book of Acts

The original version of the fifth book of the New Testament was not neatly divided into chapters and verses as in our contemporary English Bibles.¹  When Luke first penned this document, it appears to have been structured according to six general time periods,² each of which ends with a summary statement of the gospel’s progress:

·      “The word of God kept spreading; and the number of the disciples continued to increase greatly in Jerusalem, and a great many of the priests were becoming obedient to the faith” (6:7).³

·      “So the church throughout Judea, Galilee, and Samaria enjoyed peace, as it was being built up; and as it continued in the fear of the Lord and in the comfort of the Holy Spirit, it kept increasing” (9:31).

·      “But the word of the Lord continued to grow and to be multiplied” (12:24).⁴

·      “So the churches were being strengthened in the faith, and were increasing in number daily” (16:5).

·      “So the word of the Lord was growing and prevailing mightily” (19:20).

·      “Now Paul stayed two full years in his own rented lodging and welcomed all who came to him, preaching the kingdom of God and teaching things about the Lord Jesus Christ with all openness, unhindered” (28:30-31).

Accordingly, the historical record of the book of Acts is arranged in these six general blocks of time:

         Period                          Reference                    Dates AD⁵

         Period I                        1:1 – 6:7                       30-33

         Period II                        6:8 – 9:31                    33-36

         Period III                       9:32 – 12:24                36-44

         Period IV                      13:1 – 16:5                   44-50

         Period V                       16:6 – 19:20                 50-56

         Period VI                      19:21 – 28:31               56-62

Since the number seven symbolizes completeness,⁶ and the historical record of Acts covers only six general time periods, if this has any symbolic relevance, the book of Acts ends with the gospel story not yet completed. In other words, the narrative (of which we are a part) continues, even until the end of the age (Matt. 28:18-20). 

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Stephen Langton (ca. 1150-1228), Roman Catholic Cardinal and Archbishop of Canterbury, is credited with having arranged the Latin Bible into the chapter divisions that are still used today, albeit poorly placed in a number of locations. The first printed Bible to use these chapter divisions was the 1382 English Bible of John Wycliffe. Following the lead of 15th-century Jewish copyists, French printer Robert Estienne, a.k.a. Robertus Stephanus (1503-1559), was the first to add verse divisions to both the Old and New Testaments, originally published in the 1560 Geneva Bible. 

     ² See C. H. Turner, “The Chronology of the New Testament,” in A Dictionary of the Bible, ed. James Hastings (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1898-1904) 1:421; also F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988) 123 n. 20; D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992) 181-82.

     ³ Unless noted otherwise, scripture quotations are from the NASB 2020.

     ⁴ The last verse of chapter 12 opens the discussion of chapter 13 and therefore does not directly belong to the section that immediately precedes it.

     ⁵ These dates are approximations, and one will find slight chronological variations among NT scholars. For further notes on these particular dates, see K. L. Moore, Getting to Know the Bible (New Plymouth NZ: World Literature Publications, 2002): 90-99.

     ⁶ See K. L. Moore, “Daniel’s Prophecy of ‘70 Weeks,’” Moore Perspective (10 March 2021), <Link>; and “The Number 666,” Moore Perspective (27 Jan. 2021), <Link>.

Related Posts: Authorship of Luke-Acts, Dating of Luke-Acts, Luke's Audience, What Happened After Acts?  

 

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