The Paradox of Freedom

This year, as the United States of America celebrates her 250th anniversary as an independent nation, citizens of this country are especially mindful of the freedoms and opportunities we enjoy that are unavailable to so many around the world. Since the 4th of July 1776, the United States Declaration of Independence has affirmed, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.”

From a Christian perspective, regardless of where on planet earth we live, “our citizenship exists in heaven, from which also we are awaiting a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ” (Philippians 3:20).¹ The readership to whom Paul originally wrote these words was comprised of Roman citizens living in a Roman colony where freedom was highly valued (Acts 16:12, 21). Paul himself was a Roman citizen with all the rights and privileges this afforded (Acts 22:25-28; 1 Cor. 9:1, 19a), although at the time of writing he was incarcerated, “in chains” (Phil. 1:7-17). Moreover, in the opening address he describes himself, along with his coworker Timothy, as “slaves” of Christ Jesus (Phil. 1:1), elsewhere self-identifying as the Lord’s “prisoner” (Eph. 3:1; Philem. 1, 9).

Citizens of God’s heavenly kingdom have certain unalienable rights and liberties unlike anything earthly governments might offer or attempt to take away. The concept of “freedom” has a whole new meaning when viewed through the lens of God’s inspired word.²

The New Testament World

Christianity entered a world where slavery was already a long-established societal norm and regarded as an economic necessity. It is estimated that one in five of the Roman Empire’s population and one in three of Italy’s population were slaves.³ Throughout the vast Mediterranean regions of the first century, Christian communities included slaves, ex-slaves, and slave owners (1 Cor. 7:17-24; 12:13; Eph. 6:5-9; Col. 3:22–4:1; 1 Tim. 6:1-2; Tit. 2:9-10; 1 Pet. 2:18-21). Even so, these conventional status rankings were broken down and leveled out in Christ (Gal. 3:28; Col. 3:11).⁴ Irrespective of ethnic and social distinctions, a new relationship is created within God’s family (Philem. 10-16), where all are equally subservient (Rom. 6:18; 1 Cor. 7:22; Gal. 5:13) and all are equally free (Gal. 5:1, 13).

Jesus the Great Emancipator

Addressing a mixed crowd of Jewish believers and nonbelievers, Jesus promised: “If you abide in my word, truly you are my disciples. And you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free .... if therefore the Son has set you free, you will be free indeed” (John 8:31-32, 36). The Lord was speaking to subjugated Jewish people whose homeland was occupied by pagan Roman oppressors, but a much greater adversary was enslaving them in the bondage of sin (vv. 23-24, 34, 41, 44). The deliverance Jesus offers is by far the most pressing need.

The irony is that Jesus, our great emancipator whose example we are called to follow, did not come to this earth to be served but to serve and to liberate sinners through his life and sacrificial death (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45). In emptying himself to join the ranks of humanity, he took on the role of a humble “slave” [δοῦλος] (Phil. 2:5).

Paul to the Galatians

“For the freedom Christ freed us; stand firm therefore and do not be entangled again with a yoke of slavery” (Gal. 5:1). When Paul speaks of “the freedom” (article [τῇ] appended), he is specifically referencing what is discussed throughout his letter to the Galatians, namely freedom from “the present evil age” (1:4) and the shackles of sin (2:17-20; 3:22), as well as the burdens of the old-covenant system of Judaism (2:4, 16; 3:13, 21-25; 4:1-7, 21-31). And how is this freedom to be utilized? “For you were called to freedom, brethren; only do not use the freedom for an opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve [as slaves] one another” (Gal. 5:13).

Paul to the Corinthians

The mid-first-century church at Corinth was comprised of slave members and members who were legally free (1 Cor. 7:21-24; 12:13). Even though Paul was counted among the freemen (9:1, 19), he willingly lowered himself to a virtual “slave” to win others to Christ (9:19b). He calls upon the Corinthians to follow his example as he follows Christ’s example (4:6; 11:1), involving self-denial (13:5b) and sacrificing perceived “rights” for the benefit of others (8:9–9:18; 10:24, 32-33). A literal slave who is in the Lord is spiritually free, while all who submit to Jesus as Lord are his willing slaves (7:22).

Paul to the Romans

Paul’s letter to the saints at Rome continues the familiar analogy of slavery in the Roman world to illustrate profound spiritual truths. In fact, the letter opens with Paul professing to be “a slave of Christ Jesus” (1:1). Chapter 6 begins with the rhetorical question, “Are we to continue in sin …?” (v. 1), followed by an emphasis on freedom. When the question is repeated, “Are we to sin …?” (v. 15), it is followed by an emphasis on servitude.

A penitent believer “baptized into Christ” (Rom. 6:3) transitions from having been “enslaved to sin” to being “set free from sin” (vv. 6-7).⁵ Obedience to the gospel in this reenacting of Christ’s death, burial, and resurrection renders one no longer “dead” in sin but “alive to God in Christ Jesus” (v. 11) to “walk in newness of life” (v. 4). Submitting to Jesus as “Lord” means that sin ceases to reign as lord and master. God’s grace defeats and replaces sin’s dominion. To be “under grace” (vv. 14-15) is not a license to sin (vv. 1-2) but provides motivation and discipline to live according to the right ways of God, free from the mastery of sin.

Baptized believers in Christ are now committed to righteousness (6:15-23). If the intention of the old Mosaic law was to direct people to live consistently with the divine will, and if “we are not under the law,” are we then left with no standard of morality so that sin is reinvigorated? “By no means!” (v. 15). Freedom from sin is not freedom to sin, which would otherwise be a total misconception of freedom “under grace” apart from the law. Although Christians are liberated from the old Jewish system as a means of justification (cf. 7:1-6), it is entirely untrue that there are no obligations to God’s will under grace. Humble obedience is inextricably linked to faith as a fundamental requisite within the new-covenant system of grace (cf. 1:5; 16:26).

To “present yourselves … as obedient slaves” (6:16a) is an intentional choosing of loyalty and service. The critical decision is between “sin unto death” or “obedience unto righteousness” (v. 16b). Paul is thankful to God that the Romans have chosen the latter, involving the “standard,” “pattern,” “model” [τύπος] of “teaching” [διδαχή] (v. 17), the body of doctrine mutually accepted and followed by first-century churches of Christ: “the doctrine [διδαχή] that you have been taught …” (16:16-17). It is this pattern of instruction “to which you were committed” (ESV), “delivered” (ASV, KJV, NKJV), “handed over” (CSB), “entrusted” (ISV, NASB2020, NRSV) that “has now claimed your allegiance” (NIV).

Obedient faith emanates from the “heart” [καρδία]—the physical, mental, and spiritual core and impetus of action—necessary for “having been set free from sin” and to “have become slaves of righteousness.” In the past the Romans had given themselves over to “impurity” and increasing “lawlessness” but have now changed masters to “righteousness” [δικαιοσύνη] unto “sanctification” [ἁγιασμός] (6:19). The noun “sanctification,” used in Romans only here and in v. 22 (with its verb form [ἁγιάζω] in 15:16), refers to the process of making or becoming holy, set apart for God’s purpose and separated (in thinking, priorities, behavior) from the sinful world.⁶

As former “slaves of sin,” so-called “freedom” was essentially the rejection of righteousness, when sin was the master rather than the righteous ways of God (6:20). Fortunately, the Roman saints are “now ashamed” of their past unrighteousness that produced only “death” (cf. 5:12–6:16), something earned and thus deserved as “wages” (6:23a). Now, having been “set free from sin,” they have committed themselves as “slaves to God” producing the fruit of “sanctification,” a new and holy way of life, “and its end, life everlasting,” something unearned and undeserved as “the gracious gift of God ... in Christ Jesus our Lord” (vv. 22-23).

Due to this God-given freedom in Christ, “we serve [as slaves] in newness of spirit ...” (7:6) and are amenable to the exhortation: “Be devoted to one another in brotherly love, in honor esteeming one another, not slacking in diligence, being fervent in spirit, serving [as slaves] the Lord” (12:10-11).

Further Exhortations

Hebrews affirms freedom from sin (1:3) and freedom from the devil’s power of fear and death (2:14-15). James speaks of the guidance and blessing of “the perfect law of liberty” by which we are mercifully judged (Jas. 1:25; 2:12-13). Peter declares as God’s will that we are to utilize our freedom, not to hide evil but to do good and live our lives as slaves of God (1 Pet. 2:15-16). He further warns Christians, who have been freed from those living in error and the pollutions of the world, of false teachers promising liberty, while they are themselves slaves of corruption alluring God’s liberated ones back into bondage (2 Pet. 2:18-20).

Conclusion

We are accountable for our own decisions and actions, as God allows us freedom to choose.⁷ He calls us to exercise our freedom responsibly by rendering ourselves completely to his will, which is far superior to our own. He offers freedom from ourselves and from the master of sin, so we may wholeheartedly and freely obey him. We are thus delivered from sin’s control and at liberty to obey God in humble service within the glorious realm of his righteousness.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ² The relevant Greek terms for this study include the following: (a) the adjective ἐλεύθερος (“free”) in Matt. 17:26; John 8:33, 36; Rom. 6:20; 7:3;1 Cor. 7:21, 22, 39; 9:1; 12:13; Gal. 3:28; 4:22-31; Eph. 6:8; Col. 3:11; 1 Pet. 2:16; Rev. 6:15; 13:16; 19:18; (b) the noun ἐλευθερία (“freedom”) in Rom. 8:21; 1 Cor. 10:29; 2 Cor. 3:17; Gal. 2:4; 5:1, 13[x2]; Jas. 1:25; 2:12; 1 Pet. 2:16; 2 Pet. 2:19; (c) the noun ἐξουσία (in the sense of “right,” “liberty,” “freedom”) in 1 Cor. 7:37; 8:9; 9:4, 5, 6, 12[x2], 18; 11:10; 15:24; 2 Cor. 10:8; 13:10; 2 Thess. 3:9; and the verb ἐλευθερόω (“set free”) in John 8:32, 36; Rom. 6:18, 22; 8:2, 21; Gal. 5:1.

     ³ Mark Cartwright, “Slavery in the Roman World,” Ancient History Encyclopedia (1 Nov. 2013), <Link>. During the first century AD approximately 16-20 percent were reportedly slaves within a population of about 60 million (W. V. Harris, “Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” MAAR 36 [1980]:117-40); some estimates are as high as 33-40 percent (Keith R. Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome [Cambridge: University Press, 2014] 33).

     ⁴ The NT does not enjoin, endorse, or condone slavery but simply gives regulatory instructions within the existing social structure. The principles of Christianity would mitigate the harshness of slavery and eventually lead to its demise. See K. L. Moore, “Households and Slavery,” Moore Perspective (24 July 2019), <Link>.

     ⁵ The verbal expression “[he] has been set free” is translated from δεδικαίωται (the perfect passive indicative form of δικαιόω, to “justify”), a primary emphasis in Romans. Thus, to be “justified by faith” (Rom. 3:28; 5:1) clearly involves an obedient faith-response inclusive of baptism.

     ⁶ Cognate with the adjectival ἅγιος (“holy,” “set apart”), as well as ἁγιωσύνη (“holiness”) and ἅγιοι (“saints”) (Rom. 1:7; 8:27; 12:13; 15:25, 26, 31; 16:2, 15).

     ⁷ Freedom without choice is a logical impossibility. A loving God gives us free will and instructions for making the right decisions (2 Tim. 3:16-17), desiring all to be saved and none to perish (1 Tim. 2:4; 2 Pet. 3:9).

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Psalm 137: The Blessing of Murdering Babies?!

“How blessed will be the one who grabs your babies and smashes them on a rock!” (Psalm 137:9, NET).

Context and Translation

A single verse, read in isolation without a context, is sure to be misunderstood. The setting of Psalm 137 is Babylonian exile. The psalmist and fellow-captives are mourning and reminiscing as they are mocked by their Babylonian captors. The Jewish exiles long for the home they have been forced to leave, so they pray. These words are not issued from God but directed to God.

Verse 7 laments the disgraceful betrayal by the Edomites—descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob’s brother Esau—who had cheered on the Babylonians and rejoiced when the pagan attackers razed the holy city of Jerusalem.¹ The cry for justice then turns against the Babylonians, who themselves were destined for destruction (vv. 8-9).

The Hebrew noun esher [אֶשֶׁר] means “happy” or “blessed,” which in this passage is not necessarily blessed by God but the feeling of delight or happiness (cf. ASV, CSB, ERV, NIV, N/KJV, NLT, N/RSV, WEB). As a prophetic statement, the one who will be happy is the one who repays the personified “daughter of Babylon” for what she has done to God’s people (v. 8).

Being “happy” about one’s own achievements is not the same as being “blessed” by the Lord (Psa. 128:1-2). Jeremiah wondered in amazement, “Why are those happy who deal so treacherously?” (Jer. 12:1, NKJV).² In Malachi 3:13-15, the people complain against God because their perceived “righteous” acts do not seem to give them an advantage over the heathen, and since the Lord has not rewarded them with material blessings, they foolishly consider prideful sinners as the ones who are “happy” or “blessed.”

Murdering Babies

Historically, Babylon’s main enemy was the savage nation of the Medes, known for their brutal atrocities, including dashing babies on rocks (Isa. 13:16-17), a heinous act of cruelty also practiced by the neighboring Assyrians (Hos. 13:16; Nah. 3:10) and Syrians (2 Kings 8:12). But this was not something ever practiced or condoned by the people of God, and certainly never sanctioned by God. The pagan enemy of Babylon is the one who will be happy about killing Babylonian babies. For helpful commentary, see esp. Isaiah 13:1, 15-19; cf. also Jer. 50:9-11; 51:11.

Some have classified Psalm 137 as an imprecatory psalm, wherein the psalmist cries out against the cruel enemies of God’s people and pleads for retributive justice.³ This type of psalm does demonstrate that the God of the Bible is sympathetic and understanding, allowing distressed and tortured souls in the depths of despair and affliction to be honest and real. He invites his suffering and confused children, with their fallible emotions, to speak frankly whatever is on their hearts. However, the words of Psalm 137:8-9 are not descriptive of a righteous Israelite but of a heartless and godless foe.

Conclusion

The poetic words of Psalm 137:8-9 convey the thoughts, not of God or of God’s people, but of the pagan enemy of wicked Babylon. While the Bible is the inspired word of God, it also contains descriptions of and words spoken by Satan and his agents and sinful human beings. When reading any passage of scripture, it is important to consider the context and ask, “Who is speaking?” or “About whom is this speaking?”

The sad reality is, even to this present day, calloused hearts still do not value the sacredness of human life and can be just as cruel. “Woe to those who call evil good, and good evil; Who put darkness for light, and light for darkness; Who put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter!” (Isa. 5:20). May we, as God’s people, handle accurately the word of truth and teach accordingly, while serving as beacons of God’s righteousness in this dark world, no matter our circumstances.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See Lamentations 4:20-21; Ezekiel 25:12-14; Obadiah 10-14.

     ² For an excellent response, read Psalm 73.

     ³ Imprecatory psalms include Psalms 5:10; 17:13; 18:40-42; 35:1-8; 55:9, 15; 58:6-10; 59:13; 69:22-28; 79:6-7; 139:19.

Related Posts: Genocidal God?, One of the Worst Things about Hell, Layers of Context (Part 1) 

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Conflict Resolution: Whose Responsibility? (Part 2 of 2)

The Biblical Pattern

STEP 1: It always begins with me. If I am guilty of sin, the Lord expects me to follow his directions and seek redemption.¹ If my brother has something against me, the Lord expects me to take the initiative and seek resolution.² If my brother sins against me, the Lord expects me to approach the offending brother first and seek reconciliation.³ If my brother sins, whether it directly affects me or not, the Lord expects me to be my brother’s keeper and seek restoration.⁴

It goes without saying that the directive to “go and tell him his fault between you and him alone” (Matt. 18:15)⁵ is not without implicit exceptions. It presupposes an established relationship, not a “cold turkey” approach. Differences in gender, age, relationship, trust, and maturity would call for wisdom and discretion to avoid the appearance of impropriety, intimidation, or a compromising situation. A mutually respected mediator would then be appropriate (cf. Acts 9:26-28; Phil. 4:2-3).

STEP 2: If implementing the first step does not result in having “gained your brother,” i.e., if he refuses to listen and repent, “take with you one or two more” (Matt. 18:16), preferably, if not presumably, reputable and spiritually mature brethren (cf. Gal. 6:1). Jesus gives scriptural confirmation, quoting Deuteronomy 19:15, a long-established conventional means of corroboration.⁶  Multiple witnesses serve the threefold purpose of (a) confirming the charge, (b) protecting the accused against impulsive, petty, or malicious allegations, and (c) providing additional support and counsel.

STEP 3: If the accused refuses to heed the mutual appeal of concerned brethren, “tell it to the church” (Matt. 18:17a). The body of Christ is not one member but many (1 Cor. 12:14-26), and when one member goes astray, the entire church is affected (1 Cor. 5:6; Gal. 5:7-9). A unified plea, and any other disciplinary action, is the corporate responsibility of the congregation as a whole (1 Cor. 5:4-5; 6:1-5; 2 Thess. 3:6, 14; 1 Tim. 5:20).

STEP 4: “But if he refuses even to hear the church, let him be to you like a heathen and a tax collector” (Matt. 18:17b). When a wayward brother defies the collective admonition of his church family and stubbornly persists in misconduct, he himself has severed his spiritual bond with the Lord and the Lord’s people. The rest of the congregation are simply to follow through with his own foolish choices. Likening him to “a heathen and a tax collector” (discussed in more detail below) should be understood from Christ’s perspective and in light of how the early church carried it out.

This latter stage of the disciplinary process is purposeful disassociation: “taken away from among you,” “deliver such a one to Satan,” “purge out,” “do not keep company with,” “put away from yourselves,” “withdraw from” (1 Cor. 5:2-13; 2 Thess. 3:6, 14).⁷ If the impenitent sinner is determined to live for Satan, he is to be turned back over to Satan’s realm; let him experience the world of Satan so he will want to return to the Lord and the Lord’s family. The primary objective is not necessarily punishment or retaliation but to rescue a lost soul, while also maintaining the moral integrity of the church (1 Cor. 5:4-8; 2 Cor. 2:5-11; 2 Thess. 3:14; 1 Tim. 5:20; Jas. 5:19-20).

STEP 5: The disassociation is not the final step, nor is it a complete severance of all interaction: “note that person and do not keep company with him, that he may be ashamed. Yet do not count him as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother” (2 Thess. 3:14-15). This cannot be done unless regular contact is maintained. Disciplinary action, although firm and uncompromising, is not intended to be hateful, malicious, or cruel. The withdrawing does not mean giving up on this brother, and further attempts are to be made to bring him back to faithfulness. The admonishing continues until repentance is forthcoming (cf. 2 Cor. 2:5-11; 7:9-10).

Like a Heathen and a Tax Collector?

Why is the impenitent brother likened to the “heathen” [ὁ ἐθνικὸς] and “tax collector” [ὁ τελώνης], and how would this comparison be viewed from the Lord’s perspective?

In first-century Palestine, the provincial tax collector (or revenue officer) was a local hireling of a wealthy contractor, typically a foreign publicanus, the one retaining the Roman tax-gathering contract. Regular interaction and collaboration with pagan Gentiles rendered the Jewish tax collector ceremonially defiled and a social outcast in the orthodox Jewish community. Characteristically greedy and corrupt, he was despised by the local populace and lumped together with “prostitutes” (Matt. 21:31-32) and “sinners” (Matt. 9:10-11; 11:19).⁸

In Matthew 18:17 the hypothetical tax collector is grouped with ὁ ἐθνικός, variously rendered “heathen” (N/KJV), “pagan” (NIV), “unbeliever” (CEV, ISV), but mostly “Gentile” (CSB, ESV, NASB, NET, N/RSV). The adjectival ἐθνικός appears three times in Matthew’s Gospel, all in the teachings of Jesus (Matt. 5:46-47; 6:7; 18:17), and only once in the rest of the NT (3 John 7). It specifically refers to a foreigner with particular focus on moral or religious defects, comparable to “unbelieving, worldly, polytheistic” (BDAG 276). From a Jewish perspective it would apply to a non-Israelite (Matt. 5:47; 6:7), and from a Christian perspective, to a non-Christian (2 John 7).⁹

How did Jesus respond to and treat the tax collectors of his day and others considered morally and religiously deficient? Although he recognized their disreputable standing in the community (Matt. 5:46-47), he reached out to them, spent time with them, and was considered their “friend” (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:34). He certainly did not condone, justify, tolerate, or participate in their sins, yet with compassion he sought to guide, influence, and teach them to turn from their sinful ways (Matt. 9:10-13; Mark 2:14-17; Luke 5:27-32; 15:1-32). In general they proved to be receptive to the Lord, more so than the self-righteous religious elites (Matt. 21:31-32; Mark 2:14; Luke 3:12-14; 7:29-30; 15:1-2; 18:9-14).

When Jesus instructed his disciples to view an erring brother like the “heathen” and the “tax collector,” they would know from the Lord’s own example what this meant: no hatred or malice or disdain but loving concern for a lost soul.¹⁰ Neither condoning nor overlooking the sin, discipline is administered by withdrawing cordial association, “Yet do not count him as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother” (2 Thess. 3:14-15).

Ironically, it is only in Matthew’s Gospel that the apostle Matthew is labelled “the tax collector” (Matt. 10:3). He knew firsthand what it was like to be detested and disparaged as an outcast in his own community yet loved by the Lord anyway. What Jesus spoke, Matthew the tax collector recorded.

Conclusion

In dealing with a sinning brother (or sister), it never involves vile castigation or complete avoidance. With Christlike compassionate love we do what is needed, according to Christ’s example and teachings, to win our errant sibling back, seeking recognition of sin, shame, and godly sorrow leading to repentance and restoration: “that his spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord” (1 Cor. 5:5b).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The verb μετανοέω (“repent”) occurs sixteen times in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 3:2; 4:17; 11:20, 21; 12:41; Mark 1:15; 6:12; Luke 10:13; 11:32; 13:3, 5; 15:7, 10; 16:30; 17:3, 4) and eighteen times in the rest of the NT (Acts 2:38; 3:19; 8:22; 17:30; 26:20; 2 Cor. 12:21; Rev. 2:5[x2], 16, 21[x2], 22; 3:3, 19; 9:20, 21; 16:9, 11). The noun μετάνοια (“repentance”) occurs eight times in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 3:8, 11; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:3, 8; 5:32; 15:7; 24:47) and fourteen times in the rest of the NT (Acts 5:31; 11:18; 13:24; 19:4; 20:21; 26:20; Rom. 2:4; 2 Cor. 7:9, 10; 2 Tim. 2:25; Heb. 6:1, 6; 12:17; 2 Pet. 3:9). See K. L. Moore, “What Must I Do To Be Saved?” Moore Perspective (30 Jan. 2015), <Link>.

     ² Matt. 5:23-24; 7:3-5; 1 Cor. 10:24; Phil. 2:3-4.

     ³ Matt. 18:15 (ASV, CSB, ESV, N/KJV, RSV); Luke 17:3 (NIV, N/KJV, WEB); cf. Luke 17:4.

     ⁴ Matt. 18:15 (NASB, NET, NIV); Luke 17:3 (ASV, CSB, ESV, ISV, NASB, NET, N/RSV); Gal. 2:11-14; 6:1-2; Jas. 5:19-20.

     ⁵ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the New King James Version (1996).

     ⁶ See also Deut. 17:6; John 8:17; 2 Cor. 13:1b; 1 Tim. 5:19; Heb. 10:28. Among the ancients, from Herodotus (420 BC) to Marcellinus (AD 395), eyewitness testimony was regarded as the most reliable source of information. See David E. Aune, The New Testament in Its Literary Environment, LEC (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987): 81.

     ⁷ Cf. also Rom. 16:17; Tit. 3:10-11. “The abuse of discipline has often led to a harsh and intolerant spirit, but neglect of it has proved a danger almost as great” (Donald Guthrie, The Pastoral Epistles, TNTC [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991]: 106).

     ⁸ See BDAG 999; cf. also Mark 2:15-16; Luke 5:30; 7:34; 15:1. The term τελώνης appears in the NT only in the Synoptic Gospels and is better rendered “tax collector” or “tax gatherer” rather than “publican” (ASV, Douay-Rheims, JUB, KJV), a transliteration of the Latin publicanus.

     ⁹ In Matthew 5:47, in the broader discussion about enemies, hateful persecutors, the evil and the unjust, instead of οἱ ἐθνικοί, a textual variant reads οἱ τελῶναι (“tax collectors”) (MSB, N/KJV, WEB, YLT). The standard Greek text accepts the οἱ ἐθνικοί reading, variously rendered “Gentiles” (ASV, H/CSB, ESV, NASB, NET, N/RSV), “pagans” (NIV), “unbelievers” (CEV, ISV). In Matthew 6:7, variously rendered “Gentiles” (ASV, CSB, ESV, NASB, NET, N/RSV, WEB), “heathen” (N/KJV), “pagans” (NIV), “unbelievers” (ISV), “idolaters” (HCSB)—cp. 1 Kings 18:26; Acts 19:34. In 3 John 7, variously rendered “Gentiles” (ASV, ESV, ISV, NASB, N/KJV), “heathen” (RSV), “pagans” (CSB, NET, NIV), “nonbelievers” (NRSV). On the noun ἔθνος, see BDAG 276-77; also K. L. Moore, “Until the Times of the Gentiles are Fulfilled,” Moore Perspective (2026), <Link>.

     ¹⁰ If the noun ἔθνη (“nations”) is also considered, the point is even more impactful (Matt 12:18, 21; 21:43; 24:14; 28:19).

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