The Last Chapter of Romans: Greetings from Christian Friends (Romans 16:21-23), Part 1 of 2

In addition to Paul’s acquaintances in Rome who could vouch for him, he now includes greetings from immediate colleagues, demonstrating that he is not alone in his teachings, mission, and all that has been conveyed in this letter.¹

“Timothy, my fellow worker, greets you …” (Romans 16:21a, ESV).

Among those with Paul in Corinth at the time of writing is his dear friend “Timothy.”² The name Τιμόθεος is a combination of the Greek words τιμή (“value”) + θεός (“God”), meaning “of value to God.” Paul regards him as “my fellow worker” [ὁ συνεργός μου],³ a recognition afforded earlier to Prisca and Aquila and in a broader sense Urbanus.⁴ The churches east of Rome already knew Timothy as the apostle’s coworker, so the introduction here would not only be informative to unfamiliar Romans⁵ but would set the stage for Timothy’s eventual excursions to Rome.⁶

Timothy’s Background

He was a mixed-race native of the Lycaonian city of Lystra in the southern Galatia province of eastern Asia Minor (modern-day central Turkey). His mother Eunice and maternal grandmother Lois were Jewish, from whom he had learned the holy scriptures from childhood, and his father was Greek, probably the reason Timothy was uncircumcised in spite of his Jewish bloodline (Acts 16:1-3; 2 Tim. 1:5; 3:15).

Timothy was likely converted to Christ during the first missionary campaign of Barnabas and Paul, as reference is made to “the disciples” in Lystra (Acts 14:20, 22), one of whom is later identified as Timothy (Acts 16:1).⁷ His faithfulness to the Lord and competence in the Lord’s service were observable enough for the brethren in the area to speak highly of him (Acts 16:2). When Paul returned to Lystra early in the year 50, he was so impressed with Timothy that he invited the young man to join his mission team (Acts 16:3a). 

As new converts, Timothy and Eunice had witnessed firsthand the severe maltreatment toward those proclaiming the gospel in an anti-Christian world and were also warned, “through many afflictions we must enter God’s kingdom” (Acts 14:19-22; cf. 2 Tim. 3:10-12). Nevertheless, Timothy readily joined Paul’s mission team, with no reported resistance from his mother or anyone else, and he even submitted to circumcision (a painful and risky surgery) to enhance his effectiveness in advancing the gospel among fellow ethnic Jews (Acts 16:3b). Even though he was already regarded as Jewish among Gentiles, the cultural expediency of circumcision⁸ averted the charge by orthodox Jews of Timothy being an apostate to be banned from strategic preaching sites like the synagogues.⁹

Repeatedly described as Paul’s “child” [τέκνον],¹⁰ Timothy would have been somewhat younger than the apostle. About thirteen or fourteen years after the partnership began, mention is made of Timothy’s “youth” [νεότης] (1 Tim. 4:12). While this descriptive term does not indicate an actual number, it was applied to men of military age (ca. 20-45),¹¹ and the comparable expression “young man” [νεανίας] (cf. Acts 7:58) referred to one between the ages of about 24 and 40 (BAGD 534). When Timothy became Paul and Silas’s missionary assistant, he was probably in his 20s or early 30s.¹²

Young Timothy was entrusted with a “gift” [χάρισμα] “through” or “by means of” [διά] prophecy (1 Tim. 4:14a; cf. 1:18), implemented “through” or “by means of” [διά] the laying on of Paul’s hands (2 Tim. 1:6), along “with” [μετά] (in addition to) the laying on of the eldership’s hands (1 Tim. 4:14b). These were the congregational leaders appointed by Paul and Barnabas several months earlier (Acts 14:23), showing their endorsement and confirmation of Timothy’s mission.¹³

Timothy’s Work with Paul

He became one of Paul’s closest companions and is mentioned by name in the openings of more Pauline documents than any of the apostle’s other coworkers.¹⁴ Timothy appears to have played a prominent role in the production of 2 Corinthians, Colossians, and the Thessalonian correspondence.¹⁵ Two of Paul’s letters, including his final apostolic manuscript, are addressed to Timothy. The only writings in the Pauline corpus wherein Timothy is not explicitly named are those sent to the Galatians, the Ephesians, and Titus.¹⁶ 

The young apprentice worked with Paul in southern Galatia (Acts 16:1-6), in the Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea (Acts 16:7–17:14), in the Achaian cities of Athens and Corinth (Acts 17:15–18:5; Rom. 16:21; 2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 3:1-2), and in the Asian cities of Ephesus (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor. 4:17) and Troas (Acts 16:8-11; 20:4-5). After the letter to the Romans was penned, he also journeyed with Paul from Corinth en route to Jerusalem with financial assistance for needy saints (Acts 20:4) and eventually made his way to Rome.

As Timothy matured and gained experience, he served as the apostle’s trusted representative to the churches of Macedonia (Acts 19:22), including the cities of Philippi (Phil. 2:19)¹⁷ and Thessalonica (1 Thess. 3:2), and Achaia’s capital of Corinth (1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10). He would go on to be with Paul in Rome (Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; Philem. 1; cf. 2 Tim. 4:9-21), serve as an evangelist in Ephesus (1 Tim. 1:2-3; 2 Tim. 4:5), and at some point be imprisoned but later released (Heb. 13:23).

Timothy’s Demeanor

Timothy appears to have been prone to timidity and fear and subject to disregard because of his reserved temperament and comparative youth (1 Cor. 16:10-11; 1 Tim. 4:12; 2 Tim. 1:7-8).¹⁸ He also struggled with health issues (1 Tim. 5:23). Not surprisingly, whenever he was sent as Paul’s emissary, he was given elaborate commendations (1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil. 2:19-24; 1 Thess. 3:2). Even though the young evangelist was already known by these churches, such generous acclamations would help bolster his confidence and promote acceptance and respect.¹⁹ It would further justify Paul’s absence and remind the readers that Timothy was a divinely commissioned “man of God” in his own right (1 Tim. 6:11), whose admonitions ought to be heeded.²⁰

“… so do Lucius and Jason and Sosipater, my kinsmen” (Romans 16:21b).

Also sending greetings from Corinth are three more brothers associated with the apostle’s ministry, one with a Latin name and the other two with Greek names. Once again Paul sees the need to expressly identify “my kinsmen” [οἱ συγγενεῖς μου] (cf. vv. 7, 11), fellow-ethnic-Jews (cf. 9:3-5), whether applicable here to all the names in the verse or just the last two.²¹

The Latin name “Lucius” [Grecized Λούκιος] means “light,” a praenomen that was among the most common in ancient Rome. The only other occurrence of the name in the NT is that of “Lucius of Cyrene” (Acts 13:1), one of the leaders of the Syrian Antioch church. Whether or not the two biblical references apply to the same person cannot be confirmed.

While the name’s contracted form is Λουκᾶς (“Luke”), which is also short for Λουκανός, it is highly unlikely that the person named here is Paul’s longtime friend and companion Luke the physician. The apostle consistently refers to him as Λουκᾶς rather than Λούκιος (Col. 4:14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. 4:11), and Dr. Luke appears to have been in Philippi at the time of writing (Acts 20:1-5; cf. 16:10–17:1). Moreover, if Lucius is among the ones Paul identifies as “my kinsmen,” a presumed Gentile like Luke would be excluded.²² Nothing more is known about Lucius beyond this verse. 

The Greek name “Jason” [Ἰάσων]²³ means “healer,” from the noun ἰατρός (“one who heals, a mediciner, physician”) and the verb ἰάομαι (to “heal” or “cure”), cognate with Iaso [Ἰασώ], the goddess of healing.²⁴ The name also appears in Acts 17:1-10 with reference to a Thessalonian convert, often assumed to be non-Jewish and therefore not counted as Paul’s ethnic kinsman. However, during the inaugural campaign at Thessalonica, Jews, proselytes, and Gentile God-fearers would have been the main targeted audience each sabbath day, and “some” [τινες] of the synagogue attendees were persuaded (Acts 17:4a). 

It has been suggested that the name Jason was “a pure Greek substitute for Ἰησοῦς, which was simply a transliteration of Yēšûa‘.”²⁵ Nonetheless, most Thessalonian converts were “worshiping-Greeks” [σεβομένων Ἑλλήνων] (Acts 17:4) and former idolaters (1 Thess. 1:9), and Josephus shows a distinction in names when speaking of a former high priest named “Jesus” [Ἰησοῦς], who “changed his name to Jason [Ἰάσονα] …” (Ant. 12.5). Albeit less than conclusive, among the identified delegates accompanying Paul from Corinth on the way to Jerusalem were “the Thessalonians, Aristarchus and Secundus” (Acts 20:4), with no mention of Jason.

“Sosipater” [Σωσίπατρος] is a Greek compound name consisting of σῴζω (“save” or “preserve”) + πατήρ (“father”), meaning “saving father” or “father’s rescuer.” The contracted form is “Sopater” [Σώπατρος], worn by “Sopater the Berean, son of Pyrrhus” (Acts 20:4), who was with Paul in Corinth at the time of writing and accompanied him to Macedonia onto Jerusalem.²⁶ Perhaps he was called by this name because he had led his father Pyrrhus to Christ, having snatched him out of the proverbial fire.²⁷ That he was ethnically Jewish and thus Paul’s kinsman is supported by Acts 17:10-12.²⁸

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ This feature occurs in another letter addressed to a community of disciples with whom the apostle was not personally acquainted (Col. 4:10-15; cf. also the other correspondence sent to Colosse, Philem. 2, 23-24), yet in the rest of his letters comparatively minimal (1 Cor. 16:19-20a; 2 Cor. 13:13; Gal. 1:2a; Phil. 4:21b-22; 2 Tim. 4:21; Tit. 3:15a) or not at all (Ephesians, 1-2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy).

     ² Cf. Acts 20:1-4; 1 Cor. 16:5; 2 Cor. 1:1, 16.

     ³ In 1 Thess. 3:1-2 textual evidence is divided as to whether Timothy is a συνεργὸν (“coworker,” CSB, ESV, NASB, NRSV), διάκονον (“servant” or “minister,” ASV, RSV), or both (N/KJV; cf. NIV). B. M. Metzger acknowledges, “on the basis of external evidence it may appear that the reading καὶ διάκονον τοῦ θεοῦ … should be adopted,” but he then opines, “the reading that best accounts for the origin of the others is καὶ συνεργὸν τοῦ θεοῦ …” (Textual Commentary [2nd ed.] 563). However, the vast majority of manuscripts support the inclusion of both descriptive terms: καὶ διάκονον τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ συνεργὸν ἡμῶν (“and servant of God and our coworker,” BMT).

     ⁴ Elsewhere, having applied the descriptor to himself and Apollos (1 Cor. 3:9) and then to himself, Timothy and Silvanus (2 Cor. 1:24; 6:1), Paul also includes Titus (2 Cor. 8:23), Epaphroditus (Phil. 2:25), Euodia, Syntyche, Clement, and others (Phil. 4:2-3), Aristarchus, Mark, and Jesus Justus (Col. 4:10-11), Philemon (Philem. 1), and Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke (Philem. 24). “Paul mentions many other friends whom he does not explicitly call co-workers but from whom he certainly would not have withheld the designation …. One can well believe that, without their self-denying aid, his own ministry would have been much less effective than it was” (F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 87, 90).

     ⁵ P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 157.

     ⁶ Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; Philem. 1; 2 Tim. 4:9-21.

     ⁷ Timothy was regarded as Paul’s “child” [τέκνον] (1 Cor. 4:17; Phil. 2:22; 1 Tim. 1:2, 18; 2 Tim. 1:2; 2:1), not only emphasizing the closeness of their relationship but perhaps identifying Timothy as one of the apostle’s early converts (compare 1 Cor. 3:1-2; 4:14-17; Phil. 2:22; Philem. 10).

     ⁸ Cf. 1 Cor. 7:19; 9:19-23. Titus, on the other hand, was a full-blooded Greek whose concession to this Jewish rite would have compromised the Christian faith and set a dangerous precedent (see Gal. 2:3-5).

     ⁹ F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 31; cf. F. Rosner, Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics 196.

     ¹⁰ 1 Cor. 4:17; Phil. 2:22; 1 Tim. 1:2, 18; 2 Tim. 1:2; 2:1.

     ¹¹ Herodotus, The Histories 4.3.1; 9.12.2; Thucydides, The Peloponnesian Way 2.8.1. The minimum age of military service in ancient Israel was 20 years old (Num. 1:3, 20, 22, 24, etc.). In the Roman army, the youngest recruits were around 18-20 years of age, serving at least twenty years plus five more as reservists (cf. James Lloyd, “Roman Army,” Ancient History Encyclopedia [30 April 2013], <web>).

     ¹² According to a fifth-century tradition (Acts of Timothy), Timothy was killed in the year 97 at the age of 80, which would mean that he was about 33 years old when his partnership with Paul began, and he was in his late 40s when the aged apostle refers to his “youth” (1 Tim. 4:12).

     ¹³ Compare Acts 6:6; 13:2-3; 1 Tim. 5:22.

     ¹⁴ 2 Cor. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; Philem. 1.

     ¹⁵ Even though Timothy is named with Paul in the opening verses of Philippians and Philemon, the prolific use of the “I” form of address throughout these letters argues against any substantial contribution Timothy may have made, though he could have served as amanuensis (see K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 246-53). 

     ¹⁶ In the letter to the Galatians, sent to churches that included Timothy’s hometown of Lystra, Timothy may have been included among “all the brothers with [Paul]” (Gal. 1:2). When Ephesians was written, Timothy had apparently been sent away to Philippi (Phil. 2:19-23), and when the letter to Titus was written, Timothy had been left in Ephesus to work with the church there (1 Tim. 1:3).

     ¹⁷ It was “a forty-days journey on foot from Rome to Philippi (with the short sea-crossing of the Straits of Otranto) and another forty-days journey back. There were not many of his friends whom he could expect to do that for him; but he knew that Timothy would do it willingly” (F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 33). 

     ¹⁸ G. Milligan speaks of “Timothy’s timidity … evidently of a shy and sensitive disposition …. gentle, loving Timothy” (Men of the NT 343-46). 

     ¹⁹ Titus, on the other hand, did not need such hefty commendations (2 Cor. 7:15; 8:17; 12:18). 

     ²⁰ According to a fifth-century tradition (preserved in the apocryphal Acts of Timothy), as an old man Timothy publicly preached the gospel in Ephesus as an attempt to interrupt a procession honoring the goddess Diana. As a result, the pagans beat him, dragged him through the streets, and stoned him to death. If there is any truth to this story, apparently the timidity of Timothy’s youth was replaced with boldness in his later years. 

     ²¹ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:805.

     ²² Paul does not count Luke as one of his coworkers “of the circumcision” (Col. 4:10-13); the author of Luke-Acts refers to the Aramaic tongue of the Palestinian Jews as “their own language” (Acts 1:18-19); Aramaic expressions and place names in the other Gospels are omitted in Luke; the writings of Luke (in high quality literary Greek) share more in common with Greek historiography than either Jewish or Roman. See K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 82-86; cf. also D. A Carson, An Introduction to the NT (2nd ed.) 206; R. A. Culpepper, The Gospel of Luke 9; R. T. France, “Matthew, Mark, and Luke,” in A Theology of the NT 237; W. G. Kümmel, Introduction to the NT 147. For an alternative view, see D. A. Allen, Lukan Authorship of Hebrews 263-67; S. L. Harris, Understanding the Bible 266-68; R. W. Stacy, “Colossians 4:11 and the Ethnic Identity of Luke,” Eruditio Ardescens (Spring 2015): 1-15 <Web>; R. Strelan, Luke the Priest 102-110.

     ²³ The name of the Greek mythological leader of the Argonauts. 

     ²⁴ H. G. Lidell, R. Scott, H. S. Jones, and R. McKenzie, Greek and English Lexicon 302-303.

     ²⁵ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:805; cf. P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 74; J. Weima, Thessalonians 27.

     ²⁶ On behalf of the Macedonia churches, Berea was represented by Sopater, Thessalonica by Ayristarchus and Secundus, and Philippi by Luke; for the Galatia churches, Derbe was represented by Gaius, Lystra and Iconium by Timothy; the Asia churches had Tychicus and Trophimus (Acts 20:4-6).

     ²⁷ See Jude 23. The Greek name Πυρρός means “fire-like, flame-colored, red” (cf. Rev. 6:4; 12:3).

     ²⁸ Later tradition includes Sosipater among the seventy(-two) disciples of Luke 10:1 and alleged bishop in Iconium.

Related Posts: Avoid Those Causing Division (Rom 16:17-20), Commendation of Timothy, Comparing Titus and Timothy

 

Image credit: https://www.ucg.org/the-good-news/profiles-of-faith-timothy-pauls-son-in-the-faith 

The Last Chapter of Romans: Avoid Those Causing Division (Romans 16:17-20)

“I appeal to you, brothers, to watch out for those who cause divisions and create obstacles contrary to the doctrine that you have been taught; avoid them. For such persons do not serve our Lord Christ, but their own appetites, and by smooth talk and flattery they deceive the hearts of the naïve” (Romans 16:17-18, ESV). 

For the third time in the letter Paul employs his customary παρακαλῶ formula, “I appeal to you, brothers” (cf. 12:1; 15:30), marking a subject change and revealing another major purpose.¹ With such an abrupt excursus in the midst of his closing greetings, it seems as though Paul, deeply committed to his apostolic duty, is having a hard time finishing the manuscript.² Having fought unrelenting battles against divisive instigators over the years (with more to come),³ he issues an existential warning to his readers. This flows naturally from the previous verse, where the enjoined atmosphere of holiness and peace is susceptible to disrupting influences, and reference to “all the churches of Christ” would surely call to mind the serious challenges they faced of which Paul was personally and painfully aware (cf. 2 Cor. 11:28). 

The appeal “to watch out” is a present infinitive [σκοπεῖν] meaning “to keep on watching” or “to constantly be alert”⁴ with respect to certain ones persistently “causing” [ποιοῦντας] the “divisions” [τὰς διχοστασίας] or “dissentions” (NASB, NET, N/RSV)⁵ and the “obstacles” [τὰ σκάνδαλα], “offenses” (N/KJV, NRSV), “hindrances” (NASB), or “occasions of stumbling” (ASV) (cf. 14:13b). Such troublesome behavior is “contrary to” [παρά]⁶ “the doctrine” [τὴν διδαχὴν] or “the teaching,”⁷ which “you” [ὑμεῖς] the Roman brethren “have been taught” [ἐμάθετε] or “learned” (most other versions).⁸ Paul takes for granted that these faraway Christians have received the same standard teaching that he and his fellow-laborers embrace (cf. 1:12; 6:17), not so-called Pauline doctrine but “common primitive Christian teaching.”⁹ Whether or not they have already encountered “such persons,” the plea is to “avoid” or “turn away from” [ἐκκλίνατε ἀπ’],¹⁰ i.e., keep your distance from them.¹¹

Jesus as “our” [ἡμῶν] (Paul and the Roman saints’)¹² “Lord Christ” is not the messianic master of the troublemakers, who do not “serve” him (regularly as slaves) [δουλεύουσιν] (cp. 6:16-20).¹³ Instead, they are enslaved to their own “appetites” [κοιλία], lit. “organ in the abdomen,” “stomach” or “belly,”¹⁴ describing a motive of self-interest and self-indulgence.¹⁵ As to the manner of their activity, it is through “smooth talk” [χρηστολογίας]¹⁶ and “flattery” [εὐλογίας]¹⁷ that presently and repeatedly “they are deceiving” [ἐξαπατῶσιν] (cf. 7:11).¹⁸ The victims of their misconduct are not the mature and strong (15:1) but “the hearts” [τὰς καρδίας] (cf. 1:21, 24; 2:5; 10:6) “of the naïve” [τῶν ἀκάκων].¹⁹ That Paul is speaking prospectively rather than to a current situation in Rome is indicated by the next statement. 

Observable Obedience

“For your obedience is known to all, so that I rejoice over you, but I want you to be wise as to what is good and innocent as to what is evil” (Romans 16:19). 

The “obedience” [ὑπακοή] that is “known to all”²⁰ is parallel to the letter’s opening observation, “your faith [πίστις] is proclaimed in all the world” (1:8), reaffirming the letter’s inclusio of “obedience of faith … among all the nations” (1:5) and “made known to all nations … obedience of faith” (16:26). As Paul dictates these words he is currently rejoicing [χαίρω] (cf. 12:12, 15) “over” [ἐπί] (“on the basis of”) the faithful obedience of the Romans (cf. 15:14), in contrast to easily-deceived naïve persons, “but” [δέ] this warning is included as a precaution. The desire or intention [θέλω] is for these believers to be “wise” [σοφός], according to divine wisdom (v. 27; cf. 1:14, 22), “for” [εἰς]²¹ the “good” [τὸ ἀγαθόν], a repeated theme throughout the letter.²² On the negative side is to be “innocent” [ἀκεραίους]²³ “for” [εἰς] the “evil” [τὸ κακόν], another major emphasis in Romans.²⁴

Satan’s Defeat

“The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet” (Romans 16:20a).

The God of the Jews and Gentiles (3:29) is “the God of endurance and encouragement” (15:5), “the God of hope” (15:13), and “the God of peace” (15:33),²⁵ the latter repeated here as “peace” [εἰρήνη], with God and others, is another recurring feature of Romans.²⁶ While the Lord Jesus Christ is God’s purveyor of peace (1:7; 5:1; 14:17-19; 15:13),²⁷ this does not mean all will be peaceable as a result of his work, particularly in view of resistant and antagonistic forces disrupting the peaceable environment intended for the church (2:9-10; 3:17; 8:6-8). 

The impact of divisive evildoers (vv. 17-19) is ultimately the work of “Satan” [ὁ Σατανᾶς],²⁸ operating through the agency of deceitful workers (2 Cor. 11:12-15).²⁹ That God will “crush Satan under your feet” is reminiscent of the earliest messianic prophecy (Gen. 3:15) and of Jesus’s purpose to bring about not only peace³⁰ but division with respect to those choosing spiritual darkness over light.³¹ The obedient and the good (v. 19) will always be victorious over Satan’s power.³² The phrase rendered “soon” [ἐν τάχει] can mean either “in a short time” or “quickly”³³ as to whenever the problem presents itself.

Prayer for Divine Grace

“The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you” (Romans 16:20b).³⁴

Another prayer-wish is presented (cf. 15:5-6, 13, 33), this time involving the “grace” [χάρις]³⁵ of the³⁶ “Lord Jesus Christ.” The full triple title “denotes the Lord Jesus Christ’s special status and dignity. Likewise the fact that Paul speaks so often of Christ simply as ‘the Lord’ indicates an already ingrained attitude to the exalted Christ as simply ‘the Master,’ for Paul as for all Christians.”³⁷ As a concluding benediction this is most fitting in that it explicitly and concisely affirms the essential nature of how God reaches out to and works with his human creation.³⁸

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Cf. 1 Cor. 1:10; 4:16; 16:15; 2 Cor. 2:8; 6:1; 10:1; Eph. 4:1; Phil. 4:2; 1 Thess. 4:1, 10; 5:14; 1 Tim. 2:1; Philem. 9, 10. 

     ² Note also Phil. 3:1-3; 4:8. “When a writer has very much to say, when he is full of zeal and earnestness, there must be much which will break out from him, and may make his letters somewhat formless. To a thoughtful reader the suppressed emotion implied and the absence of regular method will really be proofs of authenticity” (W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 429).

     ³ Judaizers in Syria, Judea, Galatia, and prospectively Philippi, eschatological preterists in Thessalonica, local disruptors and intruding pseudo-apostles in Corinth, and other false teachers at Ephesus and Colosse.

     ⁴ The verbal σκοπέω (“fix eyes upon,” “take notice of”), cognate with the noun σκοπός (“a mark aimed at”), is always used in the NT in the present (continuous action) tense, elsewhere by Paul in participial form (2 Cor. 4:18; Gal. 6:1; Phil. 2:4) and verb form (Phil. 3:17); only once outside of Paul (Luke 11:35).

     ⁵ Paul’s only other use of this noun labels it a work of the flesh as opposed to fruit of the S/spirit (Gal. 5:20).

     ⁶ The preposition παρά (lit. “near, beside”) is used here in the metaphoric sense of “beyond” or “contrary to” (cf. 1:25, 26; 4:18; 11:24).

     ⁷ Outside of Romans, the noun διδαχή is applied to Paul’s teaching ministry (Acts 13:12; 17:19) and four other times in Paul’s writings (1 Cor. 14:6, 26; 2 Tim. 4:2; Tit. 1:9).

     ⁸ Cf. 1 Cor. 4:6; 14:31, 35; Eph. 4:20; Phil. 4:9, 11; Col. 1:7; 1 Tim. 2:11; 5:4; 2 Tim. 3:14; Tit. 3:14.

     ⁹ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:798. See also 1 Cor. 15:1, 11; Gal. 1:6-12; 6:16.

     ¹⁰ The compound verb ἐκκλίνω is comprised of ἐκ (“from”) + κλίνω (to “bend” or “recline”), used earlier by Paul in a scripture quotation concerning those who have turned away from God (3:12). The word appears only one other time in the NT in another scripture quotation about turning away from evil (1 Pet. 3:11).

     ¹¹ Although this is not necessarily a matter of internal church discipline, the avoidance or severing of ties is comparable to Matt. 18:15-17; 1 Cor. 5:1-13; 2 Thess. 3:6, 14; Tit. 3:10.

     ¹² Perhaps also the entire brotherhood (C. E. B. Cranfield, Shorter Romans 374-82; J. D. G. Dunn, Romans 2:886). Four first person plurals occur in chap. 16 (vv. 1, 9, 18, 20).

     ¹³ Note the verbal δουλεύω (6:6; 7:6, 25; 9:12; 12:11; 14:18; 16:18) and the noun form “slave” [δοῦλος] (1:1; 6:16-20).

     ¹⁴ If Judaizers are in view (cf. chap. 14), this might include “their preoccupation with food laws” (C. K. Barrett, Romans 285).

     ¹⁵ Their priority is their inner desires, indulging the flesh, submitting to selfish and/or sensual appetites (cf. 1 Cor. 6:12-13; Phil. 3:17-19; Col. 3:20-23; Jude 10-19).

     ¹⁶ This noun is a hapax legomenon in the NT. 

     ¹⁷ Lit. “praise” but in an insincere and deceptive sense (cf. Jas. 3:10). Compare Job 17:5; Psa. 12:2-3; Prov. 6:24; 7:21; 26:28; Dan. 11:32; Acts 24:1-9; 1 Thess. 2:5; Jude 16.

     ¹⁸ Note also 1 Cor. 3:18; 2 Cor. 11:3; 2 Thess. 2:3; 1 Tim. 2:14.  

     ¹⁹ In a positive sense the adj. ἄκακος could refer to the “innocent,” “guileless,” or “harmless” (Heb. 7:26), but here it conveys the sense of “simple,” “gullible,” “naïve.”

     ²⁰ The phrase εἰς πάντας ἀφίκετο is lit. “has come to all.”

     ²¹ In this passage the preposition εἰς can mean “with respect/reference/relation to, in, about, for” (M. J. Harris, Prepositions and Theology 85; BDAG 291).

     ²² Twenty-one occurrences of the adj. ἀγαθός in Romans (2:7, 10; 3:8; 5:7; 7:12, 13, 18, 18; 8:28; 9:11; 10:15; 12:2, 9, 21; 13:3, 4; 14:16; 15:2; 16:19); the noun ἀγαθωσύνη (“goodness”) once (15:14)

     ²³ Besides here, the adj. ἀκέραιος appears in the NT only once more in Paul (Phil. 2:15) and once outside of Paul (Matt. 10:16).   

     ²⁴ The adj. κακός occurs in the letter fifteen times (1:30; 2:9; 3:8; 7:19, 21; 12:17, 21; 13:3, 4, 10; 14:20; 16:19); the noun κακία (“evil” or “wickedness”) once (1:29).

     ²⁵ See also Phil. 4:9; 1 Thess. 5:23; 2 Thess. 3:16; Heb. 13:20.

     ²⁶ The noun occurs ten times in the letter (1:7; 2:10; 3:17; 5:1; 8:6; 14:17, 19; 15:13, 33; 16:20), and the participial form of εἰρηνεύω (“be at peace”) once (12:18).

     ²⁷ See also Eph. 2:13-17; Col. 3:15.

     ²⁸ The designation ὁ Σατανᾶς (“the Satan”) is of Hebrew derivation, meaning “the adversary” and used as a proper name for the Lord’s ultimate enemy, the devil. He is variously described as “the tempter” (1 Thess. 3:5), “the evil one” (2 Thess. 3:3), and “the prince of the air” (Eph. 2:2). He is also called “the god of this age” (2 Cor. 4:4; cf. John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; 1 John 5:19) in that he is extremely influential in the present age (Gal. 1:4; cf. 1 Cor. 1:20; 2:6, 8; 3:18; 1 Tim. 6:7; 2 Tim. 4:10; Tit. 2:12), in contrast to “the age to come” (Eph. 1:21; Heb. 6:5). He “has blinded the minds of the unbelieving [ones], lest the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God, shines forth” (2 Cor. 4:4b). Unbelievers have allowed themselves to fall into “the snare of the devil, having been captured by him [to do] his will” (2 Tim. 2:26; cf. 1 Tim. 3:7; 6:9). But believers, who are open to and enlightened by the gospel, “are not ignorant of his schemes” (2 Cor. 2:11). Paul was commissioned to help sinners turn “from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:20), with numerous references to Satan in his writings (Rom. 16:20; 1 Cor. 5:5; 7:5; 2 Cor. 2:11; 11:14; 12:7; 1 Thess. 2:18; 2 Thess. 2:9; 1 Tim. 1:20; 5:15).

     ²⁹ The human agents of Satan are his deceived and deceiving “servants” (2 Cor. 11:15; cf. Matt. 13:38; John 8:44; Acts 5:3; 1 John 3:10). 

     ³⁰ Luke 1:79; 2:14; John 14:27; 16:33; Acts 10:36.

     ³¹ Matt. 10:34-39; Luke 12:49-53; 19:41-44.

     ³² John 8:31-36; 1 Cor. 15:57-58; Eph. 6:10-18; Col. 2:15; 2 Tim. 1:8-12; Heb. 2:14; 1 John 3:8.

     ³³ Used elsewhere of a relatively brief time period (Acts 25:4; 1 Tim. 3:14), a speedy occurrence (Luke 18:8; Acts 12:7; 22:18), or either (Rev. 1:1; 22:6).

     ³⁴ The Western text omits the grace benediction in v. 20 and has an almost identical formula in v. 24.

     ³⁵ Cf. Rom. 1:5, 7; 3:24; 4:4, 16; 5:2, 15, 17, 20, 21; 6:1, 14, 15, 17; 7:25; 11:5, 6; 12:3, 6; 15:15; 16:20, 24. Every letter in the Pauline corpus concludes with a “grace” benediction in which the divine source of grace is the Lord Jesus, while the peace benedictions attribute the divine source of peace to God.

     ³⁶ The possessive pronoun “our” (cf. v. 18) is not in the original text.

     ³⁷ J. D. G. Dunn, Theology of Paul the Apostle 245.

     ³⁸ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:805.

Related Posts: Greetings Churches of Christ (Rom 16:14-16),  Greetings from Friends (Rom 16:21): Part 1

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The Last Chapter of Romans: Greetings to and from Churches of Christ (Romans 16:14-16)

“Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes,¹ Patrobas, Hermas, and the brothers who are with them” (Romans 16:14, ESV).² 

Another local church appears to be identified here. All five of the individuals greeted have Greek names, presumably eastern immigrants, “and the brothers who are with them” would be the other members unknown to Paul by name. None standing out as an apparent patron or host, all listed together seemingly on the same level, gives the impression of congregants among society’s lower echelons, perhaps meeting in a small tenement apartment.³

Referencing them as “brothers” [ἀδελφοί] (or “brethren”) sees them belonging to God’s universal family, with another group of believers in Rome called “saints” [ἅγιοι] (v. 15) and those assembling in the home of Prisca and Aquila called a “church” [ἐκκλησία] (v. 5). Rather than making pedantic distinctions, these local groups are more likely alluded to with descriptive terms that ultimately bring them together as a unified whole. They are brethren (1:13; 8:12; 15:14, 30),⁴ churches belonging to Christ (1:5-6; 16:16) and mutually sanctified (1:7; 8:27; 15:16).

The Greek name “Asyncritus” [Ἀσύγκριτος] means “incomparable.” Apparently from somewhere east of Rome, the name has been found twice in Roman inscriptions, only one of which is relevant to Paul’s time period (the latter half of the first century) and that of an imperial freedman.⁵

“Phlegon” [Φλέγων] is a Greek name, from the verb φλέγω (“ignite,” “burn,” “inflame”), conveying the sense of “burning” or “zealous.” The few relevant inscriptions in Rome (possibly as many as seven) indicate a migrant from the east, either a slave or freedman, with possible ties to the emperor’s court.⁶

“Hermes” [Ἑρμῆς], the Greek name of the messenger of the gods (cf. Acts 14:12), was a name commonly worn in the mid-first century by slaves and descendants of slaves, including those of the imperial household (e.g., freedmen of Claudius), as well as the lowest class. Later on, inscriptional evidence shows that socially prominent persons also wore the name, including those with their own slaves and freedmen.⁷

“Patrobas” [Πατροβᾶς] is another Greek name, a combination of πατήρ (“father”) + βίος (physical “life”), denoting “father’s life,” “emulating a father,” or “paternal.” The Greek form of the name is unattested elsewhere, but in its Latin form there was a mid-first century freedman of Nero’s household, killed by emperor Galba, who was named Patrobii [Patrobius] (Suetonius, Galba 20; Tacitus, History 1.49) and its shortened form Patrobas (Martial, Epigram 2.32). Roman inscriptions point toward probable eastern origin and potential slave ancestry inclusive of prominent freedmen of the imperial court.⁸

The Greek name “Hermas” [Ἑρμᾶς], a variation (dialect form) of the aforementioned “Hermes,”⁹ is a contraction of a number of names, such as Hermagoras, Hermeros, Hermodorus, and Hermogenes, none of which was uncommon.¹⁰ Among the ancient inscriptions in Rome, of the three that may be contemporaneous, one can be identified as a first-century slave. The Hermas to whom Paul sends greetings appears to have been a Gentile Christian from the eastern region of the Roman Empire.¹¹

“Greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas, and all the saints who are with them” (Romans 16:14). 

Evidently another local church is identified here, conceivably comprised of the household of “Philogus” (the paterfamilias), “Julia” (his wife), “Nereus and his sister” (the children), “Olympas” (possibly another household member and/or the only other congregant known to Paul by name),¹² “and all the saints [ἅγιοι]¹³ who are with them.” 

The Greek name “Philologus” [Φιλόλογος] is a combination of φίλος (“loving,” “friend”) + λόγος (“word,” “saying,” “message”), meaning “lover of the word,” “fond of learning,” or “scholar.” Most likely of eastern provenance, among the eighteen potentially contemporaneous Roman inscriptions bearing the name, half are slaves or freedmen with possible links to the royal household.¹⁴ If the name in our current text had been given to a freedman by a former master, “some light is thrown on the probable occupation of the Philologus of St Paul.”¹⁵ Traditionally he is believed to have been the father of the heretic Marcion.¹⁶

“Julia” is a Latin name (transliterated Ἰουλία in Greek), the female counterpart of the masculine name Julius. As a family designation (nomen gentilicium), the clan gens Iulia (linked by common ancestry) was one of the most prominent ruling-class families of ancient Rome, Gaius Julius Caesar among the more notable.¹⁷ The Christian woman to whom Paul sends greetings, perhaps the wife of Philologus, was likely a freed person or descendant therefrom of the Julian family.¹⁸

“Nereus” [Νηρεύς] is a Greek name, from the adj. νηρός (“of fish” or “of water”), applied in Greek mythology to the father of the sea nymphs and minor sea god Nerites. In Rome this was a common name for slaves and freedmen, including those of the imperial court.¹⁹ The “sister” of Nereus is unnamed (the feminine form “Nereis” might be a possibility), presumably known to Paul’s readership. If she and her brother were children of Philologus and Julia, it is fairly certain this was a Gentile family. 

The Greek name “Olympas” [Ὀλυμπᾶς], meaning “heavenly,” is a derivative of the Greek pantheon’s Mount Olympus, perhaps an abbreviated form of the name Olympianus (“of Olympus”) or Olympiodorus (“gift of Olympus”). Inscriptional evidence links the name and related forms to slaves and former slaves, including imperial slaves and freed persons.²⁰ A Christian wearing this name would be indicative of Gentile ethnicity, probably Greek, from an idolatrous background (cf. 1:21-23),²¹ which is also the case for the previously named Nereus, as well as Phoebe (v. 1) and Hermes (v. 14).

“Greet one another with a holy kiss. All the churches of Christ greet you” (Romans 16:16).

The “one another” [ἀλλήλων] involves the entire community of believers, so once again Paul is promoting mutuality and fellowship.²² While applicable whenever fellow-Christians encountered one another, perhaps all the churches in Rome were to be called together for the public reading of this letter, and like the proverbial “kiss and make up,” the gathering would conclude with a corporate gesture of fraternal solidarity.²³ The kiss-greeting was customary throughout ancient Mediterranean cultures,²⁴  which Paul regulates here and elsewhere to ensure that intimate exchanges among the “saints” [ἅγιοι] are kept “holy” [ἅγιος] with respect to motivation and manner, averting insincerity, hypocrisy, and impropriety.

Unique in Paul’s writings and the rest of scripture is the explicit allusion here to “all the churches of Christ” [αἱ ἐκκλησίαι πᾶσαι τοῦ Χριστοῦ].²⁵ Of the 114 occurrences of the noun ἐκκλησία in the NT,²⁶ over half (sixty-two) are used by Paul.²⁷ He speaks of the one universal “church,”²⁸ all the “churches” comprehensively,²⁹ a plurality of “churches” in a broad geographical region,³⁰  and a single “church” in a particular place.³¹ In Romans all five occurrences of the word are in the final chapter with reference to three individual gatherings of Christians (vv. 1, 5, 23), numerous congregations comprised of Gentile believers (v. 4), and all the churches (v. 16).³²

As a divinely commissioned apostle of Jesus Christ (1:1-5), Paul was in a position to speak broadly of, for, and to all the churches. Some have argued that the reference in the current text is limited to the communities the apostle himself had planted (so-called Pauline churches).³³ Yet Paul routinely visited and/or included in his apostolic ministry churches that he did not personally initiate (e.g., Damascus, Jerusalem and Judea, Caesarea and Samaria, Syrian Antioch, Troas, Ephesus, Tyre, Ptolemais, Puteoli, Rome, Colosse, Laodicea).³⁴ His heartfelt concern for “all the churches” (2 Cor. 11:28) surely included these and more (cp. 1 Cor. 1:2; Col. 1:3-6). Without added or contextual qualifiers, there is no convincing reason not to take at face value allusions to “all” the churches. 

The genitival construction (English prepositional phrase) “of Christ” is fitting, seeing that the messianic title “Christ” [Χριστός] occurs sixty-six times in Romans (more than in any other Pauline document). Using the imagery of the “body” (cf. 12:4-5), Paul envisions the church as “the body of Christ.”³⁵ To be “in Christ” (vv. 3, 7, 9, 10; cf. 3:24; 6:11, 23; 8:1-2, 39; 9:1; 12:5; 15:17) is to be in Christ’s body, which is a mutual inclusion³⁶ involving “churches” [ἐκκλησίαι] said to be “in Christ” (Gal. 1:22), “of God in Christ Jesus” (1 Thess. 2:14), and “in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1).

Elsewhere Paul refers to churches that are “of God”³⁷ (implying divine origin and ownership), and according to the spiritual state, ethnicity, or ethnogeographic identity of the membership.³⁸ In Romans, however, seeing that the letter begins with an address to those who are “called [κλητοί] of [to belong to] Jesus Christ [Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ]” (1:6), the letter now ends by sending a greeting to the same addressees from all other “called-out ones” [ἐκ-κλησίαι] “of [belonging to] the Christ [τοῦ Χριστοῦ].” This highlights a fundamental basis of unity³⁹ and provides the other end of the letter-opening where Paul has informed these readers, “your faith is proclaimed in all the world” (1:8). 

The universal church [ἐκκλησία] was preordained and identified by Christ as “my church” (Matt. 16:18). Therefore, “all the churches of Christ” comprising the global community of the saved are no ordinary gatherings or temporal assemblies. The spiritual qualifiers added by Paul give a special sense to an otherwise common term.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The names Hermes and Hermas are reversed in the BMT/TR.

     ² Later tradition includes Asyncritus (alleged bishop of Hyracania), Phlegon (alleged bishop of Marathon), Hermes (alleged bishop in Dalmatia), Patrobas (alleged bishop of Naples and Puteoli), and Hermas (alleged bishop of Philippopolis and author of The Shepherd of Hermas) among the seventy(-two) disciples of Luke 10:1.

     ³ R. Jewett, Romans 29-30; P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 164-71; H. A. W. Meyer, Romans 570. An alternative interpretation suggests that each of the named men could be a household leader representing a separate house church (see T. B. Allworthy, s.v. “Philologus” in Hastings’ Dictionary of the NT). It would depend on whether “the brothers who are with them” are with all of them collectively or each of them separately.

     ⁴ Having repeatedly applied the designation ἀδελφός to the one regarded as “weak” (Rom. 14:10, 13, 15, 21), Paul then uses the same term for the entire community of Christians (15:14, 30). In fact, Paul addresses them all as ἀδελφοί ten times in the letter (1:13; 7:1, 4; 8:12; 10:1; 11:25; 12:1; 15:14, 30; 16:17). Note also “brotherhood” terminology (8:29; 12:10; cf. 8:18, 21).

     ⁵ R. Jewett, Romans 29; P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 170, 178; “Asyncritus” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 1:508; purportedly a freedman of Augustus (W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427).

     ⁶ P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 170, 180; “Phlegon,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 5:347. Phlegon of Tralles was a second-century author and freedman of emperor Hadrian.

     ⁷ E. F. Harrison, “Romans” 165; J. B. Lightfoot, Philippians 176; W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427; see esp. P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 172-74; “Hermes” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 3:156. A marble gravestone from Rome, dated mid-first century to early-second century (held in John Hopkins University’s collection of epigraphic materials, unpublished), has the epitaph of Antigone (a Latinized Greek name), the daughter of Tiberius Claudius Hermes and Claudia Heuresis.

     ⁸ P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 170, 178; “Patrobas” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 5:186; J. B. Lightfoot, Philippians 176-77; W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427.

     ⁹ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:795.

     ¹⁰ J. B. Lightfoot, Philippians 176; W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427.

     ¹¹ P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 180; “Hermas” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 3:147-148. Hermas was the name of a wealthy Christian freedman in Rome, believed to have authored The Shepherd of Hermas. While the ancient work does reflect the state of Christianity in Rome, its mid-second century dating excludes Paul’s greeted associate. See M. W. Holmes, The Apostolic Fathers 199-203.

     ¹² Later tradition includes Philologos (alleged bishop of Sinope) and Olympas (reportedly martyred by Nero) among the seventy(-two) disciples of Luke 10:1.

     ¹³ This is the final occurrence of the plural adj. “saints” or “sanctified ones” [ἅγιοι] in Romans (cf. also 1:7; 8:27; 12:13; 15:25, 26, 31; 16:2). 

     ¹⁴ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:795; R. Jewett, Romans 30; P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 170, 178; “Philologus” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 5:345; J. B. Lightfoot, Philippians 177; W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427.

     ¹⁵ J. B. Lightfoot, Philippians 177 n.1.

     ¹⁶ According to the fourth-century Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion 42.

     ¹⁷ Following Julius Caesar, two family lines, the Julio-Claudian dynasty, provided the first five emperors of the Roman Empire.

     ¹⁸ Women were often called by the feminine form of their paternal nomen, e.g., the daughters of Germanicus Julius Caesar were Julia Agrippina, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla, who may be named in literary and inscriptional records simply as Julia. The name is found on over 1,400 inscriptions of ancient Rome, mostly of freed persons and their children (P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 175-76; “Julia” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 3:1125; cf. W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427). See also Josephus, Ant. 16.5.1; 17.1.1; 19.4.3.

     ¹⁹ Of the twenty-eight inscriptions in Rome that may be contemporaneous and indicative of slave ancestry, fifteen are definite and one is probable, including an ex-slave of emperor Tiberius, a bodyguard of Claudius, and another imperial slave (R. Jewett, Romans 31; P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 174; “Nereus” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 4:1074; J. B. Lightfoot, Philippians 176; cf. W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427).

     ²⁰ P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 179; “Olympas” in Anchor Bible Dictionary 5:15.

     ²¹ Note also 1 Cor. 6:9-11; 8:4-13; 10:7, 14-30; 2 Cor. 6:14-18; Gal. 4:8; Eph. 2:11-12; 4:17-20; 1 Thess. 1:8.

     ²² Cf. also Rom. 1:12, 27; 2:15; 12:5, 10, 16; 13:8; 14:13, 19; 15:5, 7, 14.

     ²³ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:795-96; D. J. Moo, Romans 926.

     ²⁴ Gen. 27:26; 29:13; 2 Sam. 20:9; Matt. 26:49; Luke 7:45; Acts 20:37; 1 Cor. 16:20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thess. 5:26; 1 Pet. 5:14. Writing from Rome in the mid-second century, Justin Martyr (ca. 100-165) states: “Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss” (First Apology 65). 

     ²⁵ The adj. πᾶσαι (“all”) is not included in the BMT/TR.

     ²⁶ There are twenty-three occurrences in Acts: one pre-Christian (7:38), three non-Christian (19:32, 39, 41), and the rest in a Christian setting. At 9:31 textual variation is between the plural ἐκκλησίαι (BMT/TR) and the singular ἐκκλησία (NA²⁸/UBS⁵). If the latter is original, as per most modern versions, this is the only use of the singular term for a collectivity of churches in multiple geographical regions (Judea, Galilee, Samaria; cp. 15:41). John uses the word three times in his third epistle and twenty times in Revelation, incl. a reference to “all the churches” (2:23). The remaining NT uses are in Matthew (three times, each attributed to Jesus), Hebrews (twice), and James (once).

     ²⁷ This is “the single most frequent term used by Paul to refer to the groups of those who met in the name of Christ…. Clearly, then, ‘church’ is the term with which Paul most regularly conceptualized the corporate identity of those converted in the Gentile mission” (J. D. G. Dunn, Theology of Paul the Apostle 537).

     ²⁸ 1 Cor. 10:32; 12:28; 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Eph. 1:22; 3:10, 21; 5:23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 32; Phil. 3:6; Col. 1:18, 24.

     ²⁹ 1 Cor. 4:17; 7:17; 11:16; 14:33-34; 2 Cor. 8:18; 11:28; 12:13; 2 Thess. 1:4.

     ³⁰ 1 Cor. 16:1, 19a; 2 Cor. 8:1, 19, 23, 24; 11:8; Gal. 1:2, 22; 1 Thess. 2:14. Note also Acts 14:23; 16:5.

     ³¹ 1 Cor. 1:1; 6:4; 11:22; 16:19b; 2 Cor. 1:1; Phil. 4:15; Col. 4:15, 16; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:5, 15; 5:16; Philem. 2. Paul can speak of all assembled churches (1 Cor. 14:34) in the context of a local church assembled (1 Cor. 11:18; 14:4, 5, 12, 19, 23, 28, 35).

     ³² The earliest Pauline letters employ the term ἐκκλησία in the opening address (1-2 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1-2 Corinthians), whereas the later congregational letters (starting with Romans and followed by those written from Rome) are addressed to the ἁγίοι (“saints”).

     ³³ R. Jewett, Romans 976-77; D. J. Moo, Romans 927.

     ³⁴ Acts 9:19-30; 11:19-26; 15:2-4; 18:19–19:1; 20:5-7; 21:3-17; 28:13-16; Rom. 1:9-13; Col. 1:5-8; 4:16-17; Philem. 1-2.

     ³⁵ Explicitly 1 Cor. 10:16-17; 12:27; Eph. 4:12; implicitly 1 Cor. 12:12-27; Eph. 1:22-23; 2:16; 3:6; 4:4, 16; 5:23, 30; Col. 1:18, 24; 2:19; 3:15.

     ³⁶ Cf. Rom. 12:5; Eph. 1:1-14, 22-23; 2:16-22.

     ³⁷ 1 Cor. 1:2; 10:32; 11:16, 22; 15:9; 2 Cor. 1:1; Gal. 1:13; 1 Thess. 2:14a; 1 Tim. 3:5, 15.

     ³⁸ Churches are said to be “of the saints” (1 Cor. 14:33), “of the Gentiles” (Rom. 16:4), “of Galatia” (1 Cor. 16:1; Gal. 1:2), “of Asia” (1 Cor. 16:19), “of Macedonia” (2 Cor. 8:1), “of Judea” (Gal. 1:22), “of the Laodiceans” (Col. 4:16), and “of the Thessalonians” (1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1). But mostly Paul speaks of the “church/es” without added qualifiers.

     ³⁹ The wording “reminds the Romans of their inclusion not just within a Pauline mission, but within a group which encompasses all the churches…. a desire by Paul to have the Roman church join with all the churches, encouraging mutuality and independence, and a common identity ...” (J. T. Hughes, Ecclesial Solidarity 145-46). Paul’s unique phrase expresses “the way in which the Church of Rome was an object of love and respect to Jewish and Gentile Churches alike” (F. J. A. Hort, Prolegmena to Romans and Ephesians 1:52; cited in W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 427). Cf. also C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:796-97.

Related Posts: The Church of the NT, Greetings to Brothers & Sisters (Rom 16:8-13), Avoid Those Causing Division (Rom 16:17-20)

 

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