A Herd of About 2,000 Pigs (Mark 5:13): Historical Relevance

All three Synoptic Gospels record the episode of Jesus casting a legion of demons into a herd of swine (Matt. 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39). Only Mark gives the herd’s approximate number: “about 2,000.” Why were there so many pigs in this one location, and what’s the relevance?

Geographical-Sociocultural Setting

Jesus and his disciples were on the eastern coast of the Sea of Galilee in the mid-western Decapolis region near the village of Gergesa: predominately Gentile territory.¹ Since the fourth-century-BC conquests of Alexander the Great, the cities of the Decapolis (mainly east of the Jordan) were Greek municipalities that were under Roman control from the first century BC. According to Jewish law, pigs were unclean animals and forbidden as a food source (Lev. 11:7-8; Deut. 14:8), but not among the Greco-Roman population.

Roman Dietary Preferences

Pork was one of the most popular meats in Rome.² The Roman orator Callistratus considered pork to be “the most lawful flesh” (Plutarch, Quaestiones Conviviales 4.5.1). Emperor Caligula found it curious that the Jews did not eat pork and challenged a delegation from Philo to explain why (Philo, Legatio 45.361-62). Juvenal mocked the Jews of Judea for abstaining from pork and for allowing pigs to live to old age (Satire 6.160). Tacitus noted as unusual, “they abstain from swine’s flesh” (Hist. 5.4.2).

The Legio X Fretensis

Roman legions had been stationed in Syria since its establishment as a Roman province in 64 BC, the center of military operations overseeing the entire region, including the Jewish territories of Galilee and Judea. Around 41-40 BC the Legio X Fretensis (“Tenth Legion of the Strait”) was formed by Julius Caesar’s adopted son Octavian, defeating Marc Antony’s forces at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC that led to the founding of the Roman Empire and Octavian’s accession as Emperor Augustus Caesar. The legion was then stationed in Syria by at least AD 6, having engaged in repressing multiple Jewish uprisings and participating in the campaign to Judea led by legate Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (cf. Acts 5:37; Josephus, Ant. 18.1.1; 2.1).³ Documented in Syria in AD 18 (Tacitus, Annals 2.57.2),⁴ they were later involved in the Jewish-Roman War of AD 66-70 and contributed to the defeat of Galilean and Judean cities and the siege and destruction of Jerusalem.

The symbols of Legio X Fretensis were the goddess Venus (Octavian’s mythical ancestress), the bull (perhaps representing Taurus to symbolize the legion’s start around April-May), Neptune (god of the sea), a battleship (signifying victories at sea), and a boar (pictured above). This last symbol is pertinent to our study, seeing that pork was their preferred food.⁵

The Relevance of Mark’s Reference

To feed Roman legions and perhaps countless other pork-consumers who had settled in the general region, a sizeable number of pigs would have been necessary. Moreover, the Greeks regarded pigs to be among the more cost-efficient sacrifices in their cultic rituals, particularly during the annual Thesmophoria festival honoring Demeter (goddess of agriculture/ Roman Ceres) and her daughter Persephone (goddess of spring and queen of the underworld/ Roman Proserpina).⁶

Mark’s seemingly obscure attention to detail makes sense when viewed in its geocultural context. A herd of about 2,000 pigs is not only normal and expected but was probably just a meager fraction of what would have been needed and available for the local economy.

Conclusion

The Roman flavoring of Mark’s Gospel is highlighted by its heavy use of Latinisms,⁷ including the term “legion,” from the Latin legio, descriptive of a division of the Roman army of approx. 3,000–6,000 soldiers. In Mark’s telling of the story of Jesus, there appears to be a subtle anti-Roman sentiment: a “legion” of demons cast into a herd of pigs—the tenth legion’s symbol and favored food source—drowned in the sea. Despite Rome’s apparent dominance, the Son of God has arrived, he is more powerful, and his way is far superior.  

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See K. L. Moore, “Geographical Confusion: the Land of Demon-Possessed Pigs,” Moore Perspective (6 July 2022), <Link>.

     ² John M. G. Barclay, “‘Do we undermine the Law?’ A Study of Romans 14.1–15.6,” in James D. G. Dunn, ed. Paul and the Mosaic Law (Grand Rapids; Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1996) 294.

     ³ See K. L. Moore, “Luke’s Alleged Historical Blunder Revisited (Part 1),” Moore Perspective (16 Oct. 2019), <Link>.

     ⁴ It has been suggested that they may have comprised the infantry of “two centurions” and “two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen” that commander Claudius Lysias ordered to escort Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea (Acts 23:23-33). See Randall Niles, “The Roman 10th Legion of the Strait,” Drive Thru History Adventures (19 Oct. 2018), <Link>.

     ⁵ Craig E. Evans and Scott Stripling, “Did the Swine drown at Gergesa? Another Look at Mark 5:1 in Light of Text and Topography,” ETS 76th Annual Meeting (11 Nov. 2024), San Diego, CA.

     ⁶ See Matthew Dillon, Girls and Women in Classical Greek Religion (London: Routledge, 2002) 114-16. Remember also the profane pig sacrifice of Antiochus IV Ephiphanes that led to the Maccabean revolt (Josephus, War 1.1.1-2; 2 Macc. 5:11-14; cf. Dan. 8:9-13; 11:21-39).

     ⁷ See K. L. Moore, “Mark’s Audience,” Moore Perspective (27 Oct. 2012), <Link>.

Additional Sources Consulted: Austin J. Alexander, “The Tenacious Tenth: A Brief History of Rome’s Legio X Fretensis,” Medium (12 July 2023), <Link>; Emil Ritterling, “Legio X Fretensis,” Livius (22 June 2020), <Link>; Donald L. Wasson, “Legio X Fretensis,” World History Encyclopedia (20 Aug. 2021), <Link>.

Related Posts: A Legion of Demons; Beyond the Jordan 

Image credit: https://x-legio.com/en/wiki/legio-x-fretensis

Pictured below are tile fragments with the stamp of LEGX F (the Legio X Fretensis) featuring a battleship and wild boar.

https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14448/stamp-of-legio-x-fretensis/

https://x-legio.com/photo/2233/9.jpg

Labeling “False Teachers”

False teachers were problematic in the first-century church, evidenced by the repeated warnings of Jesus and his apostles and most apparent in the New Testament books of Galatians, 1-2 Timothy, 2 Peter, Jude, 1-2 John, and Revelation. Biblical reminders about being alert and on guard are still relevant today and just as important as in the early church.¹

The New Testament speaks of ...

o   false prophets (Matt. 7:15; 24:11, 24; Mark 13:22; Luke 6:26; Acts 13:6; 2 Pet. 2:1a; 1 John 4:1; Rev. 16:13; 19:20; 20:10)

o   false witness/es (Matt. 15:19; 19:18; 26:59-60; Mark 10:19; 14:56-57; Luke 18:20; Acts 6:13; Rom. 13:9; 1 Cor. 15:15)

o   false apostles (2 Cor. 11:13)

o   false brethren (2 Cor. 11:26; Gal. 2:4)

o   false doctrine (1 Tim. 1:3, 10; 6:3)

o   false teachers (2 Pet. 2:1b)

That being said, ascribing the label “false teacher” is a very serious charge and not something to hurl at others impulsively, hastily, casually, carelessly, callously, or indiscriminately. Those in the Bible regarded as “false teachers” are depicted as greedy, perverse, dishonest, deceptive, morally corrupt, lazy gluttons, in opposition to Christ, and serving their own selfish appetites. If someone is accused of being a “false teacher” but does not exhibit these heinous characteristics, the indictment is not scripturally appropriated.

Biblical Descriptions

Issues constituting false teachers in the first-century church involved:

o   deceit, hypocrisy, evil influence, lawlessness (Matt. 7:15-23).

o   erroneous messianic claims (Matt. 24:5, 24).

o   persistently causing divisions and “offenses,” “hindrances,” or “occasions of stumbling” contrary to apostolic teaching (Rom. 16:16-17).

o   perverting the gospel by binding works of the old Jewish law (Gal. 1:7-9; 2:4, 16, 21; 3:2, 5, 10; 6:13).

o   worldly-mindedness, driven by self-gratification and self-exaltation (Phil. 3:17-19).

o   resisting the truth in arrogance with a corrupt mindset accompanied by selfish, unloving, immoral deeds (2 Tim. 3:1-8).

o   rejecting biblical authority (2 Tim. 4:3-4).

o   denying the Lord with greed and deception (2 Pet. 2:1-3; Jude 4, 8).

o   ungodly and immoral living, injustice, self-willed, resisting authority (2 Pet. 2:6-10a; Jude 8-11).

o   ignorant, corrupt, unrighteous, deceptive, lustful, dishonest, forsaking the right way and going astray (2 Pet. 2:12-17).

o   empty words, lewdness, reverting to worldly ways (2 Pet. 2:18-22; Jude 12-14).

o   intentionally twisting or distorting scripture (2 Pet. 3:16).

o   complaining, flattery, mockery, sensuality, causing divisions (Jude 16-19).

o   denying Jesus as the Christ and/or the Son of God (1 John 2:22-23).

o   denying Jesus having come in the flesh (anti-Christ); being of the world rather than of God (1 John 4:1-6; 2 John 7).

o   destitute of love (1 John 4:12-16, 20-21; cf. 3:10-23; 2 John 4-6).

o   adding to or subtracting from God’s revealed will (Rev. 22:18-19).

The “false teacher” image from these biblical descriptions is one who disrespects and rejects the authority of scripture, with a hidden agenda, selfish motives, rebellious, deceptive, manipulative, leading gullible people astray. While the label “false teacher” is surely applicable to what is taught, consideration must also be given to how the message is presented with accompanying intent, behavior, and influence.

The Responsibility of the Faithful

As God’s children we are expected to understand, accept, obey, teach, and defend the truth, not only on an individual basis but collectively as a unified body, ever mindful of “one another.”² None of us can read another’s heart or discern another’s motives, but we can and should be observant and conscientious “fruit” inspectors: “... by their fruit you will recognize them” (Matt. 7:15-20). Using God’s word as our standard, we are to “Test all things; hold fast what is good” (1 Thess. 5:21). This necessarily involves evaluating the kind of spiritual “fruit” produced by the lives, example, influence, and teachings of those with whom we may disagree (cf. Matt. 12:33; Luke 7:45; 3 John 11).

Biblical Discernment

Consider the obvious differences between the attitudes and behaviors of men like Diotrephes and Demitrius (3 John 9-12). Jesus boldly confronted hypocrisy and deceit,³ while his approach was quite different toward those whose error was not as willful or defiant.⁴ Paul did not shy away from confronting misbehavior and doctrinal error,⁵ weilding the proverbial “rod” of correction when necessary, but he was also capable of warning and reproving “in love and a spirit of gentleness” (1 Cor. 4:21; cf. 2 Cor. 7:4; 10:1-2).⁶

Apollos had mistaken views about a very important doctrine and was teaching wrongly. But instead of writing him off as a “false teacher,” Aquila and Priscilla graciously and tactfully took him aside and helped him understand the truth more clearly (Acts 18:24-26). As Timothy was commissioned to “Hold fast the pattern of sound words ...” (2 Tim. 1:13a), he was reminded:

And a servant of the Lord must not quarrel but be gentle to all, able to teach, patient, in humility correcting those who are in opposition, if God perhaps will grant them repentance, so that they may know the truth, and that they may come to their senses and escape the snare of the devil, having been taken captive by him to do his will” (2 Tim. 2:24-26).

Speaking the Truth in Love

Brethren in Christ will inevitably disagree about sensitive and controversial matters, but this does not have to disrupt the unity and peace in God’s family (note, e.g., Rom. 14:1–15:13). To be sure, “we should no longer be children, tossed to and fro and carried about with every wind of doctrine, by the trickery of men, in the cunning craftiness of deceitful plotting, but, speaking the truth in love, may grow up in all things into Him who is the head—Christ” (Eph. 4:14-15).

There are times when division is necessary (1 Cor. 11:19), but when possible, unity must be prioritized since it is foundational to the Lord’s cause (John 17:20-21; 1 Cor. 1:10). Admittedly peace and harmony can be fragile and elusive, especially when fallible human beings are trying to achieve and maintain it, so it requires intentionality and concerted effort driven by integrity, humility, patience, and love (Eph. 4:1-4). In fact, love must always be the driving force when addressing divisive issues (1 Cor. 8:1; 13:1-7; 16:14).

Conclusion

Surely it is possible to “contend earnestly for the faith” (Jude 3) while also “endeavoring to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace” (Eph. 4:3). May we be wise, discerning, and diligent in seeking both.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Luke 11:34-35; Acts 20:28-31; Rom. 16:17; 1 Cor. 16:13; Gal. 6:1; Phil. 2:4; 3:17-19; Col. 4:2; 1 Thess. 5:6; 1 Pet. 5:8; Rev. 3:2-6; 16:15.

     ² Rom. 12:5; 15:14; Phil. 2:1-4; Eph. 4:25; Heb. 3:13; 10:24.

     ³ Matt. 5:20; 6:2, 5, 16; 7:15-20; 12:24-45; 15:1-9, 12-13; 16:1-5, 12; 19:3-9; 21:12-13, 23-46; 22:18, 23-29; 23:1-36.

     ⁴ Matt. 19:16-22; Mark 5:19; 12:28-34; Luke 5:31-32; 7:36-50; 10:41-42; 19:1-10; John 3:1-21; 4:7-26; 5:14; 8:10-11.

     ⁵ 1 Cor. 1:10-13; 5:1–6:20; 11:17-34; 2 Cor. 7:8; 10:9-11; 13:10; Gal. 1:6-10; 2:11-14; 3:1-3; 4:9-11, 20; 5:1-4, 15; 2 Thess. 3:6-15.

     ⁶ 1 Cor. 4:14; 8:13; 9:15-27; 10:14-15, 24, 31-33; 11:1-2; 16:14; 2 Cor. 6:11-13; 7:2, 16; Gal. 5:10; 6:1-2; Eph. 1:15-19; 4:1-6; 6:23-24; Phil. 1:1–4:23; Col. 1:1-12; 1 Thess. 1:1–3:13; 2 Thess. 1:1-5.

*Scripture quotations are from the NKJV.

Related Posts:

o   “What Does ‘Fellowship’ Really Mean?” Moore Perspective (17 Feb. 2013), <Link>.

o   “Church Discipline,” Moore Perspective (29 Nov. 2017), <Link>.

o   “Biblical Reasons for Withdrawing from a Member of the Church,” Moore Perspective (25 April 2018), <Link>.

o   “Intercongregational Responsibilties,” Moore Perspective (16 May 2018), <Link>.

o   “When a Biblical Text is Misapplied: Eph. 5:11,” Moore Perspective (21 Feb. 2018), <Link>.

 

Related articles: Wayne Jackson, “False Teachers”

 

Image credit: https://blog.newgrowthpress.com/the-traits-of-false-teachers/

Final Exhortations and Concluding Remarks (Hebrews 13:17-25)

“Obey those who rule over you, and be submissive, for they watch out for your souls, as those who must give account. Let them do so with joy and not with grief, for that would be unprofitable for you” (Hebrews 13:17, NKJV).

Submit to Your Leaders

Some among the recipients of this epistle were weak, immature, forsaking the assemblies, susceptible to strange teachings, and in danger of falling away. Thankfully their current leaders were trying to lead them in the right direction and should therefore be heeded (cf. vv. 7, 24). Like shepherds, they “watch out for your souls” and will be held accountable (cf. 4:13; 12:23).¹ Church leaders are to accept their responsibility with joy, not grief, for the benefit of the souls entrusted to their care (cf. 1 Tim. 3:1).

Prayer Requested and Prayer Offered

“Pray for us; for we are confident that we have a good conscience, in all things desiring to live honorably. But I especially urge you to do this, that I may be restored to you the sooner” (Hebrews 13:18-19).

The first statement is indicative of plural authors (cf. 2:5; 5:11; 6:9, 11), and the second indicates that one of them is the leading figure (cf. vv. 22-23; 11:32), apparently known to the reading audience.² Their lives are worthy of emulating, but they too are in need of prayers. This is similar to the Thessalonian letters, co-authored by Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy (1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1), wherein occasionally Paul inserts a personal comment (1 Thess. 2:18; 3:5; 5:27; 2 Thess. 2:5; 3:17).

“Now may the God of peace who brought up our Lord Jesus from the dead, that great Shepherd of the sheep, through the blood of the everlasting covenant, make you complete in every good work to do His will, working in you what is well pleasing in His sight, through Jesus Christ, to whom be glory forever and ever. Amen” (Hebrews 13:20-21).

As the God of peace (Phil. 4:9; Rom. 15:33; 1 Cor. 14:33), the peace he wants us to have begins with his presence in our lives (Rom. 5:1; 15:13) and extends to relationships within the body of Christ and beyond (Rom. 12:18; 14:19). God’s peace is coupled with his power, having raised our Lord Jesus from the dead (Acts 2:24; 17:31; Rom. 4:24), who is now the Great Shepherd of the sheep (Psa. 23:1; 1 Pet. 5:4). His leadership is therefore worthy of following.

Godly peace, motivation, and help are available through the blood of the everlasting covenant (cf. 10:29). The modifier “everlasting” is in contrast to the temporary covenant of the Jews (cf. 8:13), thus no other covenant is going to be made beyond this one. God’s blessings and assistance through Christ’s sacrifice and covenant enable us to be complete in every good work to accomplish his will (cf. Matt. 7:21; Eph. 2:10; Tit. 2:14; Jas. 2:14-26). He continues to work in us what is well pleasing in his sight (cf. Phil. 2:12-13; Col. 1:29; 1 Thess. 2:13; 2 Thess. 1:11).

Because of the intermediary work of Jesus Christ, he is deserving of glory, honor, and praise “forever and ever.” The “Amen” that closes this prayer is repeated as the concluding word of the epistle (see comments below).

Final Appeal and Exhortation

“And I appeal to you, brethren, bear with the word of exhortation, for I have written to you in few words. Know that our brother Timothy has been set free, with whom I shall see you if he comes shortly. Greet all those who rule over you, and all the saints. Those from Italy greet you. Grace be with you all. Amen” (Hebrews 13:22-25).

As a postscript, the prominent writer of this epistle (cf. vv. 18-19) makes a personal appeal, similar to the endings in Paul’s letters where he seems to have taken the pen from the amanuensis and written the postscript in his own hand (e.g., 1 Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6:11; Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 3:17; Philem. 19).

This epistle is described here as “a word of exhortation,” which appears to be its primary purpose. Donald Guthrie affirms: “the writer’s arguments are not to be regarded as a theological treatise or an intellectual exercise, but as a burning issue of vital practical importance…. the readers needed to be warned against turning away from Christianity” (NT Introduction 704, 710).

Timothy, apparently known to the original readership, had been imprisoned but was released and would potentially accompany the authorial leader to personally visit them. A greeting is sent to the local leaders (cf. vv. 7, 17), “and all other saints.” This seems to suggest that Hebrews was intended for a particular congregation in an area where there were other congregations in the near vicinity.

Also sending a greeting are certain ones “from Italy.” This could have reference to (a) residents in Italy, in which case the author(s) are in Italy at the time of writing and are addressing this epistle to Christians outside of Italy; or (b) Italians

living away from Italy sending greetings back home, in which case the author(s) are outside of Italy addressing this epistle to those living in Italy, perhaps Rome?⁴ The preposition apo (“from”) rather than en (“in”) seems to support the latter. Timothy was known to the Roman Christians (Rom. 16:21; Phil. 1:1; 2:19; Col. 1:1; Philem. 1; cf. 2 Tim. 4:9, 13), and Hebrews was first attested at Rome, quoted by Clement of Rome in his letter to the Corinthians (ca. AD 95-96).

The final grace wish may suggest Paul’s contribution to the Hebrews epistle or perhaps betray his influence, since all of his letters (and no others in the NT) end with the grace benediction. The concluding “Amen” is an affirmation of truth, signifying “so be it” or “truly.” This Hebraic expression served as a Jewish liturgical formula (BDAG 53) spoken by the congregation at the end of a prayer, a reading of scripture, or a prophetic declaration (1 Chron. 16:36; Neh. 5:13; 8:6), adopted by Christians (cf. 1 Cor. 14:16) and by Paul in particular.³

Conclusion

Although written in a historical context far removed from our own, Hebrews issues the same message of assurance. It enables us to understand more clearly how God has worked through the ages to prepare for and secure our redemption and heavenly home. He has provided a better way with better promises through a better covenant. Hebrews reminds us of the seriousness of sin, the dangers of apostasy, the importance of a steadfast faith, and the gratitude we owe to God for all that he has done and continues to do. He has given his Son, who is both subservient and exalted, as a far greater prophet, mediator, lawgiver, rest-provider, and savior. As the long-anticipated messianic king, Jesus is also our merciful and faithful High Priest, brother, sanctifier, forerunner, sacrifice, shepherd, and the unchangeable founder and perfector of our faith. May we be encouraged if not transformed by the message of Hebrews to remain faithful to the One who has been faithful to us.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See also Acts 20:28; 1 Peter 5:1-3.

     ² See K. L. Moore, “The Plural Authorship of Hebrews,” Part 1 (20 July 2016) <Link> and Part 2 (27 July 2016) <Link>. In the vast majority of extant multi-sender papyrus letters from antiquity, first person terminology is entirely plural, demonstrating that the responsibility for the content rests equally with each correspondent. However, some of these ancient letters (e.g., P. Oxy. 1158, 3094, 3313, P. Mur. 42) alternate between “we” and “I,” indicating that one of the senders is the primary spokesman or leader of the group who at times refers only to himself.

     ³ Rom. 1:25; 11:36; 15:33; 16:27; Gal. 1:5; 6:18; Eph. 3:21; Phil. 4:20; 1 Tim. 1:17; 6:16; 2 Tim. 4:18; cf. 2 Cor. 1:20.

     ⁴ See K. L. Moore, “Introducing Hebrews,” Moore Perspective (3 Aug. 2016), <Link>.

Related Posts: Hebrews 13:1-16

 

Image credit: https://www.borntowin.net/audio/hebrews-3-and-4/?srsltid=AfmBOorWphQ8M57afh9fmTtXZgby8szbXUzadiwnKm0Ouhjz4hkGIv4H