The Last Chapter of Romans: Benediction and Doxology (Romans 16:24-27)

“The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen” (Romans 16:24, NKJV). 

The Western text omits the grace benediction in v. 20 and has an almost identical formula here in v. 24, affecting how many times and in what location(s) the prayer-wish occurs in the final chapter. The earliest extant witnesses omit v. 24.¹ It is plausible that the grace benediction was moved from v. 20 to the end of corrupted, shorter-ending manuscripts, resulting in conflation in later copies.² The heretic Marcion of Sinope (ca. 85-160), traditionally believed to be the son of Philologus (v. 15), cut out the last two chapters of Romans in his abbreviated NT canon,³ allowing for the production of defective manuscripts thereafter.

“Now to him who is able to strengthen you according to my gospel and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery that was kept secret for long ages but has now been disclosed and through the prophetic writings has been made known to all nations, according to the command of the eternal God, to bring about the obedience of faith—to the only wise God be glory forevermore through Jesus Christ! Amen” (Romans 16:25-27, ESV). 

These verses are missing or occur at different places in a handful of manuscripts,⁴ probably due to the defective copies noted above. While some argue that a better placement is immediately after 14:23⁵ or 15:33⁶ or suspect altogether,⁷ there is no conclusive or convincing reason to dismiss the text and its present location as the apostle’s own ending to an otherwise incomplete letter.⁸ Although Pauline doxologies are typically briefer (1:25; 9:5; 11:36),⁹ Romans begins with an unusually lengthy opening address and concludes similarly, reaffirming the main ideas developed throughout.

The unidentified one who “is able” [δυναμένῳ] “to strengthen” or “to establish”¹⁰ [στηρίζω] is already understood as God (cf. vv. 20, 26, 27), who “is able” [δυνατέω] (14:4) by his divine “power” [δύναμις] (1:4, 20; 9:17; 15:13, 19),¹¹ manifested via the gospel (1:16) and the spiritual gift Paul hopes to impart “to strengthen [στηρίζω] you” or “that you may be established”¹² (1:11). Once again this is “according to” [κατά]¹³ “my gospel” [τὸ εὐαγγέλιόν μου] (cf. 1:9, 16; 2:16)—the message Paul consistently teaches (1:15; 15:16, 19, 20)—and “the preaching” [τὸ κήρυγμα] (cf. the verbal form 10:8, 14, 15) “of Jesus Christ [Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ],” the gospel’s main subject (1:4, 6, 7, 8).¹⁴

Providing an inspired commentary on the more enigmatic 11:25-32, spiritual formation is “according to” [κατά] the “revelation” [ἀποκάλυψις] (cf. 2:5; 8:19; verbal, 1:18; 8:18) of the “mystery” [μυστήριον], something once hidden but now revealed.¹⁵ What Paul proclaims is not humanly devised or discovered but divinely “disclosed” [φανερόω] (cf. 1:19; 3:21). The extended period during which the previously unknown mystery gradually unfolded—the “long ages” or “times of the ages” [χρόνοις αἰωνίοις]—reinforces the unbounded eternality of God and his purpose (cf. 2:7; 5:21; 6:22, 23; 16:25, 26); “now” [νῦν] is presently in the current age (cf. 3:26; 5:9, 11; 6:19, 21; 8:1, 18, 22; 11:5, 30, 31; 13:11).¹⁶

In addition to oral preaching,¹⁷ God’s revelation has come “through” [διά] “prophetic writings” [γραφῶν προφητικῶν]. The adj. “prophetic” [προφητικός]¹⁸ refers to what has been transmitted by a “prophet” [προφήτης] (cf. 1:2; 3:21; 11:3),¹⁹ a spokesperson for God, one through whom a “prophecy” [προφητεία] (cf. 12:6) has been communicated,²⁰ whether forthtelling a currently applicable message or predictive foretelling beyond the present. 

The focus here concerns what has been conveyed by way of “writings” [γραφῶν] or “scriptures”²¹ (cf. 1:2; 4:3; 9:17; 10:11; 11:2; 15:4). These most certainly involve the sacred writings of the OT (quoted approx. sixty-eight times in Romans, with many more allusions and verbal parallels),²² which continue to be historically, prophetically, and instructionally useful (cf. 15:4). 

Further, Paul himself has been producing inspired documents (with more to come) that are later said to be among “the rest of the scriptures” [τὰς λοιπὰς γραφάς] (2 Pet. 3:15-16).²³ And in Paul’s final apostolic manuscript, Timothy is reminded of “the sacred writings” [τὰ ἱερὰ γράμματα] he has known from childhood, then the apostle speaks of “all scripture” [πᾶσα γραφή] having been “God-breathed” [θεόπνευστος] (2 Tim. 3:14-16).²⁴ It is significant that in the previous correspondence to Timothy (1 Tim. 5:18), Paul has quoted as “scripture” both Deuteronomy 24:4 and Luke 10:7, not reciting spoken words or oral tradition but what has been put into written form [ἡ γραφή]. The NT canon was obviously forming much earlier than many critical scholars seem willing to concede.

Through these prophetic writings the gospel message “has been made known” [γνωρισθέντος – aorist participle – simple statement of fact] (cf. 9:22, 23), both in the OT (1:3; 3:21b)²⁵ and continuing in the NT (15:15),²⁶ “to all nations” [εἰς πάντα τὰ ἔθνη] (cf. 1:1-5; 4:16-18). This is “according to the command [ἐπιταγὴν]²⁷ of the eternal [αἰωνίου]²⁸ God” (cf. 1:1-17), an apparent allusion to the Great Commission.²⁹ The divine purpose is “unto” or “for” [εἰς]—“to bring about”—the “obedience of faith” [ὑπακοὴν πίστεως], drawing the letter to a close with the opposite end of the inclusio with which it opened (1:5), providing bookends that define “faith” throughout the letter as a demonstrably active faith that obeys.³⁰

This closing doxology, which starts by affirming God’s power, ends with lauding his wisdom (cf. 11:33). The Christian’s monotheistic faith (cf. 3:30)³¹ acknowledges “the only wise God,” with access to him and his wisdom (v. 19), power (v. 25), and saving grace (v. 20) “through” [διά] the mediatorial work of “Jesus Christ” (cf. 1:8; 2:16; 3:24; 5:1, 11, 17, 21; 7:4, 25). An irrepressible outburst of adulation is therefore elicited, ascribing to the heavenly throne “glory” [ἡ δόξα] (cf. 11:36; 15:6-7), a term the apostle uses primarily of God in the highest sense of honor and praise.³²

With unending veneration, the expression “forevermore” [εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας] (cf. 1:5; 9:5; 11:36) is an attempt to convey eternality, without end.³³ “And while [Paul] praises the might and wisdom of God, he knows, with heartfelt approbation, that the song of praise will go up for ever.”³⁴ The final “Amen” [ἀμήν] (cf. 1:25; 9:5; 11:36; 15:33)³⁵ is an affirmation of truth, signifying “truly” or “so be it.” With this concluding thought, what has been described as “the most profound work in existence”³⁶ comes to an end.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See C. K. Barrett, Romans 281 n.1, 286; C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:808; J. D. G. Dunn, Romans 2:901; F. Godet, Romans 501; B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary (2nd ed.) 476.

     ² W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 431.

     ³ Origen, Commentary on Romans 10.43, trans. Rufinus.

     ⁴ Missing from Greek-Latin F and G (9th cent.), 629 (14th cent.), and Latin Hier (late 5th cent.); located immediately after 14:23 in Ψ, 0209 and a few minuscules, after 15:33 in P⁴⁶and 1506, or both places in others. For more discussion, see B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary (2nd ed.) 470-73, 476-77; cf. also NET footnote.

     ⁵ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:808-13; J. Denney, “Romans” 2:723-24.

     ⁶ P. W. Comfort, A Commentary on the Manuscripts and Text of the NT 312-16.

     ⁷ C. K. Barrett, Romans 10-13; C. H. Dodd, Romans xiv-xxiv; J. A. T. Robinson, Wrestling with Romans 2-5, 147.

     ⁸ Supported by the weight of manuscript evidence and the striking parallels to the rest of the letter. “But could he, having reached the close of such a writing, fail once more to lift his eye upward and invoke on this work, the gravity of which he knew, and on the church for which it was intended, the blessing of Him who alone truly builds up and strengthens? …. In the somewhat exceptional presence of a doxology at the end of this letter, there is therefore nothing which of itself can inspire the least suspicion” (F. Godet, Romans 502). See also F. F. Bruce, Romans 23-30; D. A. Carson and D. J. Moo, An Introduction to the NT 398-401; D. J. Moo, Romans 5-9, 936-37; J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans 44-65; H. Gamble, Textual History 96-142; “Redaction” 403-18; J. Murray, Romans 2:262-68; C. J. Roetzel, Letters 103-104. The NA²⁸/UBS⁵ text includes these verses in square brackets. 

     ⁹ Note also Gal. 1:5; Phil. 4:20. The comparability to Eph. 3:20-21; 1 Tim. 1:17; 6:15-16; 2 Tim. 4:18b (cf. Heb. 13:20-21; Jude 24-25) has prompted liberal critics to question Pauline authorship. But note also Rom. 11:25-29; 1 Cor. 2:6-9; 15:51.

     ¹⁰ ASV, Darby, Douay-Rheims, LSV, MEV, NASB, NIV, NKJV, WEB. “The particle δέ, now, serves here to form the transition from the weak man who has just been writing, to the Almighty God, who can act” (F. Godet, Romans 502). 

     ¹¹ Note also the adj. δυνατός (“strong,” “able,” “powerful”) with reference to God (Rom. 4:21; 9:22; 11:23) and his faithful ones (12:18; 15:1).

     ¹² ASV, Darby, LSV, NASB, NKJV, WEB.

     ¹³ M. J. Harris observes that a repeated preposition sometimes expresses more than one sense in the same sentence or series of statements with the same case. He notes that in vv. 25-27 there seems to be three uses of κατά, conveying conformity, cause, and instrumentality, along with two uses of διά (instrumentality, agency) and three uses of εἰς (purpose, reference, goal) (Prepositions and Theology 41-42).

     ¹⁴ The double moniker “Jesus Christ,” without the added title “Lord,” occurs in Rom. 1:6, 8; 3:22; 5:15, 17; 16:25-27.

     ¹⁵ Cf. 1 Cor. 2:1, 7; 4:1; Eph. 3:3-9; Col. 1:26.

     ¹⁶ “The µυστήριον here referred to is God’s world-embracing purpose of redemption, as it has been set out conspicuously in this epistle…. The Gospel as Paul understood it was a µυστήριον, because it could never have been known except through Divine revelation” (J. Denney, “Romans” 724).

     ¹⁷ The particle τε (“and” or “also”), when use by Paul, is mostly in Romans (eighteen times); only three in 1 Corinthians, twice in 2 Corinthians, and once each in Ephesians and Philippians.

     ¹⁸ The only other occurrence of this adj. in the NT is 2 Pet. 1:19 with reference to “the prophetic word” [τὸν προφητικὸν λόγον] taught by the apostles and confirmed by “prophecy of scripture” [πρῶτον γινώσκοντες] (vv. 20-21).

     ¹⁹ In addition to the OT prophets, there were also prophets of God during the NT era (1 Cor. 12:28-29; 14:29-32; Eph. 2:20; 3:5; 4:11-16; Rev. 18:20; 22:8). Note involvement in writing (Eph. 3:3-6).

     ²⁰ Cf. 1 Cor. 12:10; 14:6, 22; 1 Thess. 5:20; 1 Tim. 1:18; 4:14; 2 Pet. 1:20-21; Rev. 1:3; 19:10; 22:10, 18, 19. Note explicit conveyance in writing (2 Pet. 1:20; Rev. 1:3; 22:10-19).

     ²¹ ASV, CSB, NASB, NET, N/KJV, WEB. The English word “scripture” is a transliteration of the Latin scriptura with reference to “a writing” or “something written.” Note throughout Romans Paul’s use of the perfect passive indicative formula, “it is written” [γέγραπται] (1:17; 2:24; 3:4, 10; 4:17; 8:36; 9:13, 33; 10:15; 11:8, 26; 12:19; 14:11; 15:3, 9, 21).

     ²² E. E. Ellis, Paul’s Use of the OT 150-85; C. G. Kruse, “Paul’s Use of Scripture in Romans,” in Paul and Scripture 10:77-92. J. Denney observes that for Paul the collection of OT writings “was essentially a Christian book. His gospel was witnessed to by the law and the prophets … and in that sense the mystery was made known through them. But their significance only came out for one—who had the Christian key to them—the knowledge of Christ which revelation had given to Paul” (“Romans” 724).

     ²³ Note also what was already established in the Petrine letters concerning divinely inspired writings (1 Pet. 1:10-12; 2 Pet. 1:19-21; 3:1-2).

     ²⁴ On the Pauline authorship of the Pastorals, see K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 177-80.

     ²⁵ Cf. Matt. 1:22-23; Luke 24:27, 44-48; John 5:46; Acts 8:30-35; 10:43; 13:22-41; 15:14-18; 17:2-3, 10-12; 18:28; 24:14; 26:22-23; 28:23; 1 Cor. 10:11.

     ²⁶ See comments v. 26; cf. John 20:30-31; 21:24; 1 Cor. 4:6, 14; 5:9, 11; 14:37; 2 Cor. 1:13; Eph. 2:19–3:11; Phil. 3:1; 2 Thess. 3:17; 1 Tim. 3:14-16; 1 Pet. 5:12; 2 Pet. 3:1, 15-16; 1 John 1:4; 2:1, 7-26; 5:13; Jude 3; Rev. 1:3, 11, 19. The messianic prophecies and promises of the OT are in the NT “revealed in fulfilment and operation” (J. Murray, Romans 2:242).

     ²⁷ The noun ἐπιταγή refers to an authoritative command, mandate, injunction (cf. 1 Cor. 7:6, 25; 2 Cor. 8:8; 1 Tim. 1:1; Tit. 1:3; 2:15).

     ²⁸ On the adj. αἰώνιος (“age-lasting” or “eternal”), see comments v. 25. The expression “eternal God” conveys a common OT concept (cf. Gen. 21:33; Deut. 33:27; Psa. 90:2; Isa. 9:6; 26:4; 40:28; Jer. 10:10; Hab. 1:12) but Paul’s use here is the only occurrence in the NT.

     ²⁹ Cf. Matt. 13:11, 17, 35; 28:18-20; Mark 16:15-16; Luke 24:45-48; Acts 1:1-8; 10:42; 15:17-18; Eph. 3:1-12; Col. 1:23-29; Tit. 1:1-3; 1 Pet. 1:10-12.

     ³⁰ This is in stark contrast to the stubborn resistance described in Rom. 2:5-8; 10:3, 16.

     ³¹ Mark 12:29, 32; John 5:44; Acts 7:35; 17:23; 1 Cor. 8:4, 6; Gal. 3:20; Eph. 4:6; 1 Tim. 2:5; Jas. 2:19.

     ³² BDAG 257-58; cf. Rom. 1:23; 3:7, 23; 4:20; 5:2; 6:4; 9:23a; 11:36; 15:7; 16:27. When used of Christ, the focus is either the final glory or the manifestation of God’s glory (1 Cor. 2:8; 2 Cor. 3:18; 4:4; 8:19, 23; 2 Thess. 2:14; Tit. 2:13). See J. D. G. Dunn, Theology of Paul the Apostle 259 n.134.

     ³³ The added τῶν αἰώνων in a number of manuscripts, expressing “an interminable accumulation of endless ‘ages’ (αἰῶνες)” (M. J. Harris, Prepositions and Theology 95; citing H. Sasse, TDNT 1:199), is probably due to the common extended formula in other doxologies (Gal. 1:5; Phil. 4:20; 1 Tim. 1:17; 2 Tim. 4:18; Heb. 13:21; 1 Pet. 4:11; 5:11; plus thirteen in Revelation), so the addition in Romans “was as natural for scribes as it would have been unusual for them to delete the words had they been original” (B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary [2nd ed.] 477).

     ³⁴ J. A. Beet, Romans 379.

     ³⁵ With textual variation, note also Rom. 16:20, 24 (LSV, N/KJV, WBT, YLT).

     ³⁶ S. T. Coleridge, Table Talk. 2nd ed. (London: John Murray, 1836): 237.

Related Post: Greetings from Christian Friends (Rom 16:21-23): Part 2

 

Image credit: https://christianpublishinghouse.co/2017/05/10/how-were-the-scribes-who-copied-the-new-testament-in-antiquity-and-what-were-their-tools-and-materials/

The Last Chapter of Romans: Greetings from Christian Friends (Romans 16:21-23), Part 2 of 2

“I Tertius, who wrote this letter, greet you in the Lord” (Romans 16:22, ESV).

The name “Tertius” [Τέρτιος] is of Latin origin (from the adj. tertius), meaning “third.”¹ The name, found in six Roman inscriptions as a slave name,² and the personal greeting seem to indicate a previous connection with Rome. Whether Tertius was a current resident of Corinth or simply there to serve as Paul’s amanuensis, he was the one doing the actual writing [γράψας] of the apostle’s oral dictation.³ This greeting (or the writing of the letter)⁴ “in the Lord” implies that Tertius was a fellow-Christian.⁵

During the time approximating the composition of Paul’s writings, papyri evidence shows that it was a common practice to use a skilled or professional penman (amanuensis) to draft a document, after which the correspondent would often add a word of farewell, personal greetings, and/or the date in his own hand.⁶ That Paul used amanuenses in the writing of several, if not all, of his letters is generally acknowledged. He appears to have followed the customary practice of his contemporaries of employing the aid of secretarial expertise (noted here) and then writing his own subscription (1 Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6:11; Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 3:17; Philem. 19).⁷ Even in the letters wherein attention is not specifically drawn to Paul having taken the pen from his amanuensis, the original autographs probably evinced a shift to the apostle’s distinctive handwriting (cf. 2 Thess. 3:17).⁸

The use here of the first person singular [ἐγὼ Tέρτιος, ὁ γράψας …] “is a striking indication of Paul’s courtesy. To have sent the greeting of his amanuensis in the third person would have been to treat him as a mere machine …”⁹ Moreover, “it was very natural that, when [Tertius] called the apostle’s attention to his personal wish to send a greeting, his own greeting … would not be dictated by the apostle, but left to himself to express. In ver. 23, Paul again proceeds with his dictation.”¹⁰

“Gaius, who is host to me and to the whole church, greets you. Erastus, the city treasurer, and our brother Quartus, greet you” (Romans 16:23).¹¹

The name “Gaius” [Γάϊος], meaning “rejoice,” is also of Latin derivation and as a praenomen, one of the more common in the Roman world.¹² It occurs in the NT five times, though not all in reference to the same person.¹³ The Gaius here is a resident of Corinth, conceivably the one baptized by Paul in the earliest stages of this work (1 Cor. 1:14). As a homeowner with the means of providing prolonged lodging and provisions for guests, he appears to have been among the affluent upper class [εὐγενής] (1 Cor. 1:26) and therefore subject to conventional Roman nomenclature. Male citizens typically had at least three names (tria nomina): a first personal name (praenomen), a clan name or family surname (nomen), and a hereditary paternal name or nickname (cognomen). It is not unlikely, therefore, that the Gaius in the present text is the one referred to by Luke as Titius Justus, a God-worshiper who welcomed Paul into his house located next to Corinth’s synagogue (Acts 18:7). The name Titius was a popular nomen¹⁴ and Justus a cognomen,¹⁵ so it would have been unusual for him not to have had a praenomen. If his full name happened to be Gaius Titius Justus, Paul would naturally know him on a more personal level by his given name.¹⁶

Gaius is presently Paul’s “host” [ξένος],¹⁷ providing accommodation and hospitality like so many others had done for the itinerant apostle. Gaius also hosted “the whole church” [ὅλης τῆς ἐκκλησίας], an apparent allusion to the local church at Corinth that regularly assembled in his house, like other house churches throughout the first-century Mediterranean world.

It has been suggested that there may have been multiple house churches in Corinth and that Gaius offered his home for intercongregational meetings.¹⁸ As many as fifteen separate house churches have been proposed, comprised of about fifteen members each for a total of over 200 Christians in the city.¹⁹ But this is highly improbable. Archeology has conclusively shown that the atrium or courtyard providing the largest space in a sizeable Roman-style house could realistically hold no more than thirty to fifty people.²⁰ This provides a more reasonable estimation and is consistent with the seventeen known names, plus households, of Corinth’s mid-first-century church.²¹

Another proposal is that Paul is making a hyperbolic reference to the universal church (as in v. 16). Gaius is therefore known for providing hospitality to all Christians passing through, thus the “hyperbolical expression would appear more jesting than thoughtful.”²² However, a straightforward reading of the text is more conducive to Paul having addressed “the church [ἐκκλησία] of God in Corinth” (1 Cor. 1:2), then alluding to their regular worship assemblies as “the whole church gathered at the same [place]” [συνέλθῃ ἡ ἐκκλησία ὅλη ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ] (1 Cor. 14:23).

The next greeting is from “Erastus” [Ἔραστος], whose name is derived from the Greek word for sensual love.²³ The name occurs three times in the NT in association with Paul, Timothy, and Corinth (Acts 19:21-22; Rom. 16:23; 2 Tim. 4:20). These overlapping connections and the comparative rarity of the name give credence to suspecting that all three biblical references are to the same person.²⁴ He is identified as “the steward of the city” [ὁ οἰκονόμος τῆς πόλεως], also rendered “city treasurer” (ESV), “town clerk” (Phillips), or “director of public works” (NIV). As a local governing official (cf. 13:5-7) he would be recognized as one of the “powerful” [δυνατοί ] and “noble” [εὐγενεῖς] among the church’s minority (1 Cor. 1:26), whose greeting is included “because he was one of the better known or more influential members of the congregation.”²⁵

A pavement-stone inscription has been preserved in the ruins of ancient Corinth, documenting Erastus (Lat. ERASTVS) having laid the limestone block at his own expense in return for the honor of the office of aedile.²⁶ If this is the same Erastus who sends greetings to the Roman saints,²⁷ he would have later occupied “a higher position in the civic administration – the position of aedile (curator of public works).”²⁸

Next is “Quartus” [Κούαρτος], whose name is from the Latin adj. quartus, meaning “fourth.” In the Greek text he is alluded to as “the brother” [ὁ ἀδελφός] rather than “our” brother.²⁹ Obviously he is a Christian, but designating him as “the brother” could indicate a more active ministerial function. In Pauline literature the descriptive label, especially in the plural [οἱ ἀδελφοί], seems to be used rather consistently to refer to a more restricted group of workers.³⁰ While not as prominent as Gaius and Erastus, Quartus’s greeting may have been included because of some connection with Rome.³¹ Nothing more is known of him beyond what is mentioned here.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The next verse mentions Quartus, which means “fourth.”

     ² F. F. Bruce, “Some Roman Slave-names” 51.

     ³ Notwithstanding Rom. 15:15, where the aorist ἔγραψα (“I wrote”) is used accommodatively in regard to authorship (cf. 1:1), Paul consistently employs the speaking verb λέγω (“I say”) throughout the letter (3:5; 6:19; 9:1; 10:18, 19; 11:11, 13; 12:3; 15:8).

     ⁴ If “in the Lord” is descriptive of Tertius’s writing, he considers his role in the composition of the letter as part of his Christian service (C. K. Barrett, Romans 286). Otherwise, he “is indicating his solidarity in Christ with the Roman Christians” (C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans2:806).

     ⁵ Later tradition includes Tertius among the seventy(-two) disciples of Luke 10:1, Sosipater's successor as bishop of Iconium, and dying as a martyr.

     ⁶ See R. N. Longenecker, “Ancient Amanuenses” 282-87; D. E. Aune, NT Literary Environment 187.  

     ⁷ G. J. Bahr suggests that the noticeable difference between Paul’s unimpressive oratory and his impressive letters (2 Cor. 10:10) may be attributable to the writing ability of his secretary (“Letter Writing” 476). W. G. Kümmel notes that the specific references to Paul’s own handwriting were likely included because the letters were read aloud and this was the only way for the listening audience to be made aware of the fact (Introduction to the NT 251). 

     ⁸ See K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 101-103. Note also the secretarial assistance of Baruch with Jeremiah (Jer. 36:4, 17-18) and Silvanus with Peter (1 Pet. 5:12).

     ⁹ J. Denney, “Romans” 723.

     ¹⁰ H. A. W. Meyer, Romans 574. As for divine inspiration, Paul affirms that “all scripture” [πᾶσα γραφὴ] is “God-breathed” [θεόπνευστος] (2 Tim. 3:16), and since “scripture” [γραφή] refers to what has been put into writing, all who participated in the writing process would necessarily have been governed by God’s Spirit. See K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 3-12.

     ¹¹ Some manuscripts insert v. 24 here: “The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.” Later tradition includes Gaius (alleged bishop of Ephesus), Erastus (associated with Jerusalem and alleged bishop of Paneas in Palestine), and Quartus (alleged bishop of Beirut) among the seventy(-two) disciples of Luke 10:1.

     ¹² Among the most notable, Gaius Julius Caesar and his adopted son Gaius Octavius (a.k.a. Augustus). 

     ¹³ The Gaius who accompanied Paul from Corinth to Jerusalem was a native of Derbe in the Galatia province (Acts 20:4). The Gaius who had been attacked during Paul’s Ephesus ministry was from Macedonia (Acts 19:29). The Gaius to whom the apostle John’s third letter is addressed (3 John 1) was presumably linked to the province of Asia in the general vicinity of Ephesus, as John is believed to have moved to Ephesus during the Jewish War (66-70) and eventually died there at the end of the first century (Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.31.3; 5.24.2; Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 3.1.1). 

     ¹⁴ Note, e.g., the first century BC Gaius Titius Strabo (an opponent of Caesar) and government official Lucius Titius Strabo, and the second century AD senator Lucius Titius Epidius Aquilinus.

     ¹⁵ Note, e.g., the first century AD Joseph Barsabbas Justus (Acts 1:23), Jesus Justus (Col. 4:11), and the second century senator Gaius Curtius Justus.

     ¹⁶ See E. J. Goodspeed, “Gaius Titius Justus,” JBL 69.4 (1950): 382-83; also F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 97; C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:807. For an alternative proposal equating Titius Justus with Stephanas (1 Cor. 1:16; 16:15-18), see R. G. Fellows, “Name Giving by Paul and the Destination of Acts,” TB 67.2 (2016): 247-68.

     ¹⁷ The term ξένος lit. refers to a “foreigner” or “stranger,” and by implication a “guest,” or vice-versa one who receives and cares for a guest, thus a “host.”

     ¹⁸ W. A. Meeks, First Urban Christians 76; C. G. Kruse, Romans 584.

     ¹⁹ P. W. Barnett, Corinthian Question 225-27. Another estimation is around ninety, cf. R. W. Gehring, House Church and Mission 139-40.

     ²⁰ See G. D. Fee, First Corinthians 533-34; J. Murphy-O’Connor, “House Churches” 133. 

     ²¹ See A. J. Malherbe, Social Aspects 76; cf. also G. Thiessen, Social Setting 73-96. Not all those identified were together in Corinth at the same time.

     ²² H. A. W. Meyer, Romans 575. Contra F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 97; W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 432.

     ²³ The noun is ἔρως and verbal ἐράω, in contrast to other concepts of “love” in the Hellenistic world.

     ²⁴ See T. A. Brookins, “The (In)frequency of the Name ‘Erastus’ in Antiquity,” NTS 59.4 (2013): 496-516. That Erastus served with Timothy as Paul’s emissary from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 19:22) does not preclude a government official on his way home from traveling for business or pleasure, and his stately position counteracting Timothy’s perceived vulnerability.  

     ²⁵ W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, Romans 432.

     ²⁶ The Erastus Stone (discovered in 1929) lies adjacent to the theater a couple hundred meters from the fenced-in tourist site. It is a long block of limestone with a Latin inscription, probably covered originally with bronze lettering. A reconstruction of the worn, abbreviated inscription reads: ERASTVS PRO AEDILIT[ATE] S(UA) P(ECUNIA) STRAVIT.

     ²⁷ B. Witherington III, Conflict and Community 32-35; Paul Quest 92-94. Contra J. Meggitt, Paul, Poverty, and Survival 155-78; “Social Status of Erastus” 220-25.

     ²⁸ F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 88. In Rome the office of aedile, which included the maintenance of public buildings and regulating public festivals, was more prestigious during the Republic but lost much of its importance during and after the reign of Augustus. In the Empire era the authority and responsibilities of this position varied in the different cities and colonies.

     ²⁹ While most translations have added the possessive pronoun “our,” not all have (e.g., ASV, NASB, N/KJV).

     ³⁰ E. E. Ellis, Prophecy 13-22; “Coworkers” (1993) 183-85; cf. F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 87-88. See 1 Cor. 1:1; 16:10 ff.; 2 Cor. 1:1; 2:13; 8:18-19, 23; 9:3, 5; 11:9; 12:18; 1 Thess. 3:2; also 1 Cor. 16:19-20; Gal. 1:2; Eph. 6:23; Phil. 1:14; 4:21-22; Col. 4:15. Apollos is called τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ and is mentioned with τῶν ἀδελφῶν who were on their way to Corinth to perhaps deliver the letter (1 Cor. 16:12). 

     ³¹ J. Denney, “Romans” 723.

Related Posts: Greetings from Friends (Rom 16:21): Part 1, Rom 16:24-27

 

Image Credit: https://christianpublishinghouse.co/2020/07/15/what-do-we-know-about-pauls-professional-scribe-tertius/ 

The Last Chapter of Romans: Greetings from Christian Friends (Romans 16:21-23), Part 1 of 2

In addition to Paul’s acquaintances in Rome who could vouch for him, he now includes greetings from immediate colleagues, demonstrating that he is not alone in his teachings, mission, and all that has been conveyed in this letter.¹

“Timothy, my fellow worker, greets you …” (Romans 16:21a, ESV).

Among those with Paul in Corinth at the time of writing is his dear friend “Timothy.”² The name Τιμόθεος is a combination of the Greek words τιμή (“value”) + θεός (“God”), meaning “of value to God.” Paul regards him as “my fellow worker” [ὁ συνεργός μου],³ a recognition afforded earlier to Prisca and Aquila and in a broader sense Urbanus.⁴ The churches east of Rome already knew Timothy as the apostle’s coworker, so the introduction here would not only be informative to unfamiliar Romans⁵ but would set the stage for Timothy’s eventual excursions to Rome.⁶

Timothy’s Background

He was a mixed-race native of the Lycaonian city of Lystra in the southern Galatia province of eastern Asia Minor (modern-day central Turkey). His mother Eunice and maternal grandmother Lois were Jewish, from whom he had learned the holy scriptures from childhood, and his father was Greek, probably the reason Timothy was uncircumcised in spite of his Jewish bloodline (Acts 16:1-3; 2 Tim. 1:5; 3:15).

Timothy was likely converted to Christ during the first missionary campaign of Barnabas and Paul, as reference is made to “the disciples” in Lystra (Acts 14:20, 22), one of whom is later identified as Timothy (Acts 16:1).⁷ His faithfulness to the Lord and competence in the Lord’s service were observable enough for the brethren in the area to speak highly of him (Acts 16:2). When Paul returned to Lystra early in the year 50, he was so impressed with Timothy that he invited the young man to join his mission team (Acts 16:3a). 

As new converts, Timothy and Eunice had witnessed firsthand the severe maltreatment toward those proclaiming the gospel in an anti-Christian world and were also warned, “through many afflictions we must enter God’s kingdom” (Acts 14:19-22; cf. 2 Tim. 3:10-12). Nevertheless, Timothy readily joined Paul’s mission team, with no reported resistance from his mother or anyone else, and he even submitted to circumcision (a painful and risky surgery) to enhance his effectiveness in advancing the gospel among fellow ethnic Jews (Acts 16:3b). Even though he was already regarded as Jewish among Gentiles, the cultural expediency of circumcision⁸ averted the charge by orthodox Jews of Timothy being an apostate to be banned from strategic preaching sites like the synagogues.⁹

Repeatedly described as Paul’s “child” [τέκνον],¹⁰ Timothy would have been somewhat younger than the apostle. About thirteen or fourteen years after the partnership began, mention is made of Timothy’s “youth” [νεότης] (1 Tim. 4:12). While this descriptive term does not indicate an actual number, it was applied to men of military age (ca. 20-45),¹¹ and the comparable expression “young man” [νεανίας] (cf. Acts 7:58) referred to one between the ages of about 24 and 40 (BAGD 534). When Timothy became Paul and Silas’s missionary assistant, he was probably in his 20s or early 30s.¹²

Young Timothy was entrusted with a “gift” [χάρισμα] “through” or “by means of” [διά] prophecy (1 Tim. 4:14a; cf. 1:18), implemented “through” or “by means of” [διά] the laying on of Paul’s hands (2 Tim. 1:6), along “with” [μετά] (in addition to) the laying on of the eldership’s hands (1 Tim. 4:14b). These were the congregational leaders appointed by Paul and Barnabas several months earlier (Acts 14:23), showing their endorsement and confirmation of Timothy’s mission.¹³

Timothy’s Work with Paul

He became one of Paul’s closest companions and is mentioned by name in the openings of more Pauline documents than any of the apostle’s other coworkers.¹⁴ Timothy appears to have played a prominent role in the production of 2 Corinthians, Colossians, and the Thessalonian correspondence.¹⁵ Two of Paul’s letters, including his final apostolic manuscript, are addressed to Timothy. The only writings in the Pauline corpus wherein Timothy is not explicitly named are those sent to the Galatians, the Ephesians, and Titus.¹⁶ 

The young apprentice worked with Paul in southern Galatia (Acts 16:1-6), in the Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea (Acts 16:7–17:14), in the Achaian cities of Athens and Corinth (Acts 17:15–18:5; Rom. 16:21; 2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 3:1-2), and in the Asian cities of Ephesus (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor. 4:17) and Troas (Acts 16:8-11; 20:4-5). After the letter to the Romans was penned, he also journeyed with Paul from Corinth en route to Jerusalem with financial assistance for needy saints (Acts 20:4) and eventually made his way to Rome.

As Timothy matured and gained experience, he served as the apostle’s trusted representative to the churches of Macedonia (Acts 19:22), including the cities of Philippi (Phil. 2:19)¹⁷ and Thessalonica (1 Thess. 3:2), and Achaia’s capital of Corinth (1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10). He would go on to be with Paul in Rome (Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; Philem. 1; cf. 2 Tim. 4:9-21), serve as an evangelist in Ephesus (1 Tim. 1:2-3; 2 Tim. 4:5), and at some point be imprisoned but later released (Heb. 13:23).

Timothy’s Demeanor

Timothy appears to have been prone to timidity and fear and subject to disregard because of his reserved temperament and comparative youth (1 Cor. 16:10-11; 1 Tim. 4:12; 2 Tim. 1:7-8).¹⁸ He also struggled with health issues (1 Tim. 5:23). Not surprisingly, whenever he was sent as Paul’s emissary, he was given elaborate commendations (1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil. 2:19-24; 1 Thess. 3:2). Even though the young evangelist was already known by these churches, such generous acclamations would help bolster his confidence and promote acceptance and respect.¹⁹ It would further justify Paul’s absence and remind the readers that Timothy was a divinely commissioned “man of God” in his own right (1 Tim. 6:11), whose admonitions ought to be heeded.²⁰

“… so do Lucius and Jason and Sosipater, my kinsmen” (Romans 16:21b).

Also sending greetings from Corinth are three more brothers associated with the apostle’s ministry, one with a Latin name and the other two with Greek names. Once again Paul sees the need to expressly identify “my kinsmen” [οἱ συγγενεῖς μου] (cf. vv. 7, 11), fellow-ethnic-Jews (cf. 9:3-5), whether applicable here to all the names in the verse or just the last two.²¹

The Latin name “Lucius” [Grecized Λούκιος] means “light,” a praenomen that was among the most common in ancient Rome. The only other occurrence of the name in the NT is that of “Lucius of Cyrene” (Acts 13:1), one of the leaders of the Syrian Antioch church. Whether or not the two biblical references apply to the same person cannot be confirmed.

While the name’s contracted form is Λουκᾶς (“Luke”), which is also short for Λουκανός, it is highly unlikely that the person named here is Paul’s longtime friend and companion Luke the physician. The apostle consistently refers to him as Λουκᾶς rather than Λούκιος (Col. 4:14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. 4:11), and Dr. Luke appears to have been in Philippi at the time of writing (Acts 20:1-5; cf. 16:10–17:1). Moreover, if Lucius is among the ones Paul identifies as “my kinsmen,” a presumed Gentile like Luke would be excluded.²² Nothing more is known about Lucius beyond this verse. 

The Greek name “Jason” [Ἰάσων]²³ means “healer,” from the noun ἰατρός (“one who heals, a mediciner, physician”) and the verb ἰάομαι (to “heal” or “cure”), cognate with Iaso [Ἰασώ], the goddess of healing.²⁴ The name also appears in Acts 17:1-10 with reference to a Thessalonian convert, often assumed to be non-Jewish and therefore not counted as Paul’s ethnic kinsman. However, during the inaugural campaign at Thessalonica, Jews, proselytes, and Gentile God-fearers would have been the main targeted audience each sabbath day, and “some” [τινες] of the synagogue attendees were persuaded (Acts 17:4a). 

It has been suggested that the name Jason was “a pure Greek substitute for Ἰησοῦς, which was simply a transliteration of Yēšûa‘.”²⁵ Nonetheless, most Thessalonian converts were “worshiping-Greeks” [σεβομένων Ἑλλήνων] (Acts 17:4) and former idolaters (1 Thess. 1:9), and Josephus shows a distinction in names when speaking of a former high priest named “Jesus” [Ἰησοῦς], who “changed his name to Jason [Ἰάσονα] …” (Ant. 12.5). Albeit less than conclusive, among the identified delegates accompanying Paul from Corinth on the way to Jerusalem were “the Thessalonians, Aristarchus and Secundus” (Acts 20:4), with no mention of Jason.

“Sosipater” [Σωσίπατρος] is a Greek compound name consisting of σῴζω (“save” or “preserve”) + πατήρ (“father”), meaning “saving father” or “father’s rescuer.” The contracted form is “Sopater” [Σώπατρος], worn by “Sopater the Berean, son of Pyrrhus” (Acts 20:4), who was with Paul in Corinth at the time of writing and accompanied him to Macedonia onto Jerusalem.²⁶ Perhaps he was called by this name because he had led his father Pyrrhus to Christ, having snatched him out of the proverbial fire.²⁷ That he was ethnically Jewish and thus Paul’s kinsman is supported by Acts 17:10-12.²⁸

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ This feature occurs in another letter addressed to a community of disciples with whom the apostle was not personally acquainted (Col. 4:10-15; cf. also the other correspondence sent to Colosse, Philem. 2, 23-24), yet in the rest of his letters comparatively minimal (1 Cor. 16:19-20a; 2 Cor. 13:13; Gal. 1:2a; Phil. 4:21b-22; 2 Tim. 4:21; Tit. 3:15a) or not at all (Ephesians, 1-2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy).

     ² Cf. Acts 20:1-4; 1 Cor. 16:5; 2 Cor. 1:1, 16.

     ³ In 1 Thess. 3:1-2 textual evidence is divided as to whether Timothy is a συνεργὸν (“coworker,” CSB, ESV, NASB, NRSV), διάκονον (“servant” or “minister,” ASV, RSV), or both (N/KJV; cf. NIV). B. M. Metzger acknowledges, “on the basis of external evidence it may appear that the reading καὶ διάκονον τοῦ θεοῦ … should be adopted,” but he then opines, “the reading that best accounts for the origin of the others is καὶ συνεργὸν τοῦ θεοῦ …” (Textual Commentary [2nd ed.] 563). However, the vast majority of manuscripts support the inclusion of both descriptive terms: καὶ διάκονον τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ συνεργὸν ἡμῶν (“and servant of God and our coworker,” BMT).

     ⁴ Elsewhere, having applied the descriptor to himself and Apollos (1 Cor. 3:9) and then to himself, Timothy and Silvanus (2 Cor. 1:24; 6:1), Paul also includes Titus (2 Cor. 8:23), Epaphroditus (Phil. 2:25), Euodia, Syntyche, Clement, and others (Phil. 4:2-3), Aristarchus, Mark, and Jesus Justus (Col. 4:10-11), Philemon (Philem. 1), and Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke (Philem. 24). “Paul mentions many other friends whom he does not explicitly call co-workers but from whom he certainly would not have withheld the designation …. One can well believe that, without their self-denying aid, his own ministry would have been much less effective than it was” (F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 87, 90).

     ⁵ P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 157.

     ⁶ Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; Philem. 1; 2 Tim. 4:9-21.

     ⁷ Timothy was regarded as Paul’s “child” [τέκνον] (1 Cor. 4:17; Phil. 2:22; 1 Tim. 1:2, 18; 2 Tim. 1:2; 2:1), not only emphasizing the closeness of their relationship but perhaps identifying Timothy as one of the apostle’s early converts (compare 1 Cor. 3:1-2; 4:14-17; Phil. 2:22; Philem. 10).

     ⁸ Cf. 1 Cor. 7:19; 9:19-23. Titus, on the other hand, was a full-blooded Greek whose concession to this Jewish rite would have compromised the Christian faith and set a dangerous precedent (see Gal. 2:3-5).

     ⁹ F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 31; cf. F. Rosner, Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics 196.

     ¹⁰ 1 Cor. 4:17; Phil. 2:22; 1 Tim. 1:2, 18; 2 Tim. 1:2; 2:1.

     ¹¹ Herodotus, The Histories 4.3.1; 9.12.2; Thucydides, The Peloponnesian Way 2.8.1. The minimum age of military service in ancient Israel was 20 years old (Num. 1:3, 20, 22, 24, etc.). In the Roman army, the youngest recruits were around 18-20 years of age, serving at least twenty years plus five more as reservists (cf. James Lloyd, “Roman Army,” Ancient History Encyclopedia [30 April 2013], <web>).

     ¹² According to a fifth-century tradition (Acts of Timothy), Timothy was killed in the year 97 at the age of 80, which would mean that he was about 33 years old when his partnership with Paul began, and he was in his late 40s when the aged apostle refers to his “youth” (1 Tim. 4:12).

     ¹³ Compare Acts 6:6; 13:2-3; 1 Tim. 5:22.

     ¹⁴ 2 Cor. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Col. 1:1; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; Philem. 1.

     ¹⁵ Even though Timothy is named with Paul in the opening verses of Philippians and Philemon, the prolific use of the “I” form of address throughout these letters argues against any substantial contribution Timothy may have made, though he could have served as amanuensis (see K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 246-53). 

     ¹⁶ In the letter to the Galatians, sent to churches that included Timothy’s hometown of Lystra, Timothy may have been included among “all the brothers with [Paul]” (Gal. 1:2). When Ephesians was written, Timothy had apparently been sent away to Philippi (Phil. 2:19-23), and when the letter to Titus was written, Timothy had been left in Ephesus to work with the church there (1 Tim. 1:3).

     ¹⁷ It was “a forty-days journey on foot from Rome to Philippi (with the short sea-crossing of the Straits of Otranto) and another forty-days journey back. There were not many of his friends whom he could expect to do that for him; but he knew that Timothy would do it willingly” (F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle 33). 

     ¹⁸ G. Milligan speaks of “Timothy’s timidity … evidently of a shy and sensitive disposition …. gentle, loving Timothy” (Men of the NT 343-46). 

     ¹⁹ Titus, on the other hand, did not need such hefty commendations (2 Cor. 7:15; 8:17; 12:18). 

     ²⁰ According to a fifth-century tradition (preserved in the apocryphal Acts of Timothy), as an old man Timothy publicly preached the gospel in Ephesus as an attempt to interrupt a procession honoring the goddess Diana. As a result, the pagans beat him, dragged him through the streets, and stoned him to death. If there is any truth to this story, apparently the timidity of Timothy’s youth was replaced with boldness in his later years. 

     ²¹ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:805.

     ²² Paul does not count Luke as one of his coworkers “of the circumcision” (Col. 4:10-13); the author of Luke-Acts refers to the Aramaic tongue of the Palestinian Jews as “their own language” (Acts 1:18-19); Aramaic expressions and place names in the other Gospels are omitted in Luke; the writings of Luke (in high quality literary Greek) share more in common with Greek historiography than either Jewish or Roman. See K. L. Moore, A Critical Introduction to the NT 82-86; cf. also D. A Carson, An Introduction to the NT (2nd ed.) 206; R. A. Culpepper, The Gospel of Luke 9; R. T. France, “Matthew, Mark, and Luke,” in A Theology of the NT 237; W. G. Kümmel, Introduction to the NT 147. For an alternative view, see D. A. Allen, Lukan Authorship of Hebrews 263-67; S. L. Harris, Understanding the Bible 266-68; R. W. Stacy, “Colossians 4:11 and the Ethnic Identity of Luke,” Eruditio Ardescens (Spring 2015): 1-15 <Web>; R. Strelan, Luke the Priest 102-110.

     ²³ The name of the Greek mythological leader of the Argonauts. 

     ²⁴ H. G. Lidell, R. Scott, H. S. Jones, and R. McKenzie, Greek and English Lexicon 302-303.

     ²⁵ C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans 2:805; cf. P. Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus 74; J. Weima, Thessalonians 27.

     ²⁶ On behalf of the Macedonia churches, Berea was represented by Sopater, Thessalonica by Ayristarchus and Secundus, and Philippi by Luke; for the Galatia churches, Derbe was represented by Gaius, Lystra and Iconium by Timothy; the Asia churches had Tychicus and Trophimus (Acts 20:4-6).

     ²⁷ See Jude 23. The Greek name Πυρρός means “fire-like, flame-colored, red” (cf. Rev. 6:4; 12:3).

     ²⁸ Later tradition includes Sosipater among the seventy(-two) disciples of Luke 10:1 and alleged bishop in Iconium.

Related Posts: Avoid Those Causing Division (Rom 16:17-20), Commendation of Timothy, Comparing Titus and Timothy, Greetings from Christian Friends (Part 2)

 

Image credit: https://www.ucg.org/the-good-news/profiles-of-faith-timothy-pauls-son-in-the-faith