What is meant by, “all things are yours” (1 Corinthians 3:21-23)?

“Therefore let no one boast in men. For all things are yours: whether Paul or Apollos or Cephas, or the world or life or death, or things present or things to come—all are yours. And you are Christ’s, and Christ is God’s” (1 Cor. 3:21-23, NKJV).

In this section of Paul’s letter to the Corinthians, he is pleading with his readers to seek true wisdom (vv. 18-23). Their highly-esteemed human wisdom should yield to the true wisdom of God even though the world regards it as foolishness (cf. 1:18-25). Rather than boasting in men (like Paul, Apollos, Cephas, 1:12), realize that as children and heirs of God, “all things are yours” (vv. 21-23). Prominent teachers like Paul, Apollos, and Cephas are not lords over whom to divide your loyalties or to boast in but are merely your servants (cf. 3:5). 

All are yours: the world, life, death, present or future (cf. Rom. 8:32-39; 1 Cor. 15:55-57; 2 Cor. 6:4-10; Heb. 2:14-15). As God’s children we are joint-heirs with Christ (Rom. 8:16-17). Outside of Christ the world, life, death, present and future are worrisome and oppressive, but the Lord enables us to master these potential burdens and be victorious (cf. 15:23-28, 54-57; Rom. 8:35-39). “But seek the kingdom of God, and all these things shall be added to you. Do not fear, litle flock, for it is your Father's good pleasure to give you the kingdom” (Luke 12:31-32). 

You are Christ’s. You belong to Christ instead of human leaders (1 Cor. 1:12-13; 2 Cor. 10:7; Heb. 2:13), and Christ is God’s in the divine hierarchical arrangement that facilitates the scheme of redemption (1 Cor. 11:3; John 14:28).

--Kevin L. Moore

Related Posts:

Image credit: https://www.cmacan.org/outstretched-arms/

Lamech’s Revenge

The fourth chapter of Genesis records the first murder, as Cain killed his brother Abel in a fit of rage. As punishment the Lord sent Cain away as “a fugitive and wanderer on the earth” (v. 12, ESV). Cain was afraid someone might locate and murder him, but the Lord said, “Not so! If anyone kills Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold” (v. 15). 

Lamech was Cain’s great-great-great grandson. “And Lamech took two wives. The name of the one was Adah, and the name of the other Zillah…. Lamech said to his wives:

‘Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
you wives of Lamech, listen to what I say:
I have killed a man for wounding me,
a young man for striking me.
If Cain’s revenge is sevenfold,
then Lamech’s is seventy-sevenfold.’” (vv. 19-24)

Verses 23-24 are set apart in the biblical text as a poetic celebration of Lamech’s pride and vengeful spirit, indicative of the moral degradation following his ancestor Cain, who “went out from the presence of the Lord …” (v. 16). It is a boastful praise of violence and bloodshed, concluding the immediate record of Cain’s lineage and godless civilization. Perhaps set to music (cf. v. 21) to exalt metal weaponry (cf. v. 22), Lamech expresses confidence and eagerness for savage retaliation, ten times greater than his celebrated great-great-great grandfather. 

Such a malicious mindset eventually led to the total annihilation of Cain’s descendants (Gen. 6:1–7:24). God’s standard of morality is much higher. Vengeance of “sevenfold” afforded to Cain and “seventy-sevenfold” Lamech afforded himself stands in stark contrast to what God expects of his children.

“Beloved, never avenge yourselves, but leave it to the wrath of God, for it is written, ‘Vengeance is mine, I will repay, says the Lord’” (Rom. 12:19). Instead of revenge, God expects forgiveness (Matt. 6:14-15). But to what extent? “Then Peter came to Him and said, ‘Lord, how often shall my brother sin against me, and I forgive him? Up to seven times?’ Jesus said to him, ‘I do not say to you, up to seven times, but up to seventy times seven’” (Matt. 18:21-22, NKJV).

--Kevin L. Moore

Related Posts:

Image credit: http://www.accuracyingenesis.com/violence.html

Chronological Confusion About the Earthly Ministry of Jesus

Raised in a carpenter’s family (Matt. 13:55), Jesus himself worked as a Galilean carpenter into adulthood (Mark 6:3).¹ The ministry of John the baptizer began in the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar’s reign (ca. 26/27), and Jesus started his ministry sometime after when he was “about” 30 years of age (Luke 3:1, 23). The word “about” [ὡσεί] suggests he was not exactly 30 but probably a bit older. 

The first Passover during his ministry was 46 years after Herod had begun construction on the temple (John 2:13, 20). Almost all modern scholars date the beginning of the temple’s construction at around 20/19 BC, the 18th year of Herod’s reign (cf. Josephus, Ant. 15.11.1), although Josephus gives conflicting information elsewhere (Wars 1.21.1, viz. the 15th year of Herod’s reign). 

The public ministry of Jesus incorporated at least three and potentially four Passovers (John 2:13; [5:1]; 6:4; 12:1),² thus about three to three-and-a-half years (depending on what time of year it began).³ Jesus was crucified on Friday, the day before the Sabbath, approx. 9 a.m. – 3 p.m. (Mark 15:25, 33, 42).⁴ The final meal he shared with the apostles prior to his death was the previous evening, on Thursday.

Chronological Confusion in the Gospel Records 

According to the Synoptic accounts, the day of Christ’s crucifixion followed the Passover supper the night before, but John’s Gospel seems to place the crucifixion on the day of preparation prior to the Passover meal (Matt. 26:17-19; Mark 14:12-16; Luke 22:7-15; John 18:28; 19:14). Either John is right and the Synoptics are wrong, or the Synoptics are right and John is wrong, or the discrepancy is more apparent than real and can be harmonized upon closer examination.⁵

The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread 

The Passover was instituted around fifteen centuries before Christ to commemorate the Israelites’ deliverance from the tenth plague and subsequent exodus from Egyptian bondage. The Law required that a lamb be killed at twilight on the 14th day of the first month of the Jewish calendar,⁶ then roasted and eaten the same evening with unleavened bread (Ex. 12:6, 8, 18). The following day (the 15th) was the beginning of a seven-day festival called “the feast of unleavened bread” [Heb. Mazzoth], and all leavening agents were to be removed from the home and unleavened bread eaten through the 21st day of the month (Ex. 12:15, 17, 19; 13:6-7; 23:15; 34:18; Lev. 23:5-6; Num. 28:16-17). In total this was an eight-day celebration: the 14th day was the Passover, and the 15th–21st days were the feast of unleavened bread.⁷

By the first century AD, the Passover and the feast of unleavened bread were not clearly distinguished. Luke refers to “the feast of the unleavened [bread], the [feast] called Passover” (Luke 22:1; cf. Acts 12:3-4; 20:6).⁸ Josephus reports that the 14th day of the first Jewish month (when leaven was prohibited) was considered the first day of the feast of unleavened bread (Ant. 17.9.3; 18.2.2; 20.5.3);⁹ “on the feast of unleavened bread, which was now come, it being the fourteenth day of the month …” (Wars 5.3.1); “we keep a feast for eight days, which is called the feast of unleavened bread” (Ant. 2.15.1), also called “the Passover” (Wars 6.9.3).¹⁰

To complicate matters further, verbal usage shows various nuances with which the expression “the Passover” [τό πάσχα] was used. The Passover was something to “keep” or “observe” [ποιέω],¹¹ to “kill” or “sacrifice” [θύω],¹² to “prepare” [ἑτοιμάζω],¹³  and to “eat” [φάγω].¹⁴ Thus the Passover was an ordinance,¹⁵ a day,¹⁶ a week,¹⁷ a lamb,¹⁸ a meal,¹⁹ a memorial,²⁰ and a celebration.²¹

The similarities and differences among the following parallel accounts are informative:

·      Matt. 26:17, “Now the first [πρῶτος] of the unleavened [bread], the disciples came to Jesus, saying, ‘Where do you want us to prepare for you to eat the Passover?”

·      Mark 14:12, “And the first [πρῶτος] day [ἡμέρα] of the unleavened [bread], when they would sacrifice [θύω] the Passover, his disciples say to him, ‘Where do you want us to go to prepare that you may eat the Passover?’” 

·      Luke 22:7, “Now came the day [ἡμέρα] of unleavened [bread] on which it was necessary for the Passover to be sacrificed [θύω].” 

Note the original distinction between the Passover and the feast of unleavened bread is no longer recognized. According to sequence of days, the 15th day of the month was the “first” day of the feast of unleavened bread, but in practice the 14th (the Passover) was considered “first” in importance.²² The last supper Jesus shared with his disciples on the Thursday evening before his death was apparently the inaugural Passover meal. 

Matthew, a Jewish author writing to a Jewish audience, does not explicitly reference the “day” and omits “sacrifice the Passover,” alleviating the subtle tension between the Law’s directives and current Jewish conventions. Mark, a Jewish author writing to a non-Jewish audience, includes “first,” “day,” and “sacrifice the Passover.” Luke, a non-Jewish author writing to a non-Jewish audience, omits “first” but includes “day” and “the Passover to be sacrificed.” Luke seems to have no reservations about combining into one “the feast of the unleavened [bread], the [feast] called Passover” (Luke 22:1).

John’s Unique Perspective

Notwithstanding a couple of obscure references (see below), whenever John employs the somewhat fluid expression “the Passover,” he does not appear to be focused on a single meal or a single day but has the extended eight-day celebration in mind (John 2:13, 23; 6:4; 11:55; 12:1; 13:1; 18:39).²³ John 13:1 stands on its own and simply notes what Jesus already knew prior to the Passover festivities. Then v. 2 picks up during the meal [δεῖπνον](note also vv. 4, 26; 21:20), presumably the Passover meal proper.

In John 18:28, after Jesus’ arrest in the early morning, the Jewish authorities wanted to avoid defilement so they “might eat the Passover.” While the official Passover supper (incl. roasted lamb) would have been consumed the night before, customary usage included the entire feast of unleavened bread that involved multiple sacrificial meals.²⁴ Ceremonial defilement would have disrupted the ongoing Passover celebrations.²⁵ John’s text simply highlights the twisted thinking and empty ritualism of these murderous hypocrites but does not provide a definitive chronological statement.

According to John 19:14, Jesus stood trial on the “preparation [day] of the Passover.” Contrary to what many have assumed, the text does not say, “preparation for the Passover.”²⁶ Seeing that John repeatedly employs the expression “the Passover” in the broader sense of the ongoing (weeklong) festival, the day of preparation was not for a single night-time meal but for the special Sabbath of Passover week.²⁷ The noun παρασκευή (“preparation [day]”) occurs five other times in the NT (Matt. 27:62; Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54-56; John 19:31, 42), all consistent with Mark’s fuller sense, “it was preparation [day], that is, the day before the Sabbath.” There is no evidence that παρασκευή was ever used for any day other than Friday, the eve of the Sabbath.²⁸ This was the day of preparation, not for the inaugural Passover meal but for the Sabbath (when no preparations were allowed) and continued feasting. 

The Historical Setting of the Trial and the Crucifixion

The crucifixion of Jesus is a matter of historical record involving prominent historical figures. Pontius Pilate was prefect of Judea during the years AD 26-36 (Luke 3:1; 23:1).²⁹ Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee and Perea 4 BC–AD 37 (Luke 3:1; 23:6-12). Caiaphas was high priest AD 18-36 (Matt. 26:3, 57).³⁰

Jesus was arrested and brought first to Annas, then to Caiaphas (John 18:13, 24) and the Sanhedrin (Matt. 26:57-68; Mark 14:53-65; Luke 22:66-71), charged with blasphemy and sentenced to death (cf. John 19:7). The Romans had divested the power from the Sanhedrin to execute the death penalty (John 18:31), so Jesus was delivered to the local prefect Pontius Pilate (Matt. 27:11-14; Mark 15:1-5; cf. John 18:28-38). Only Luke records Pilate sending Jesus to Herod Antipas (Luke 23:6-12, 15a; Acts 4:27), who then returned Jesus to Pilate, seeing that the prefect had greater authority as the emperor’s personal representative. 

The year of the Lord’s death would have been ca. AD 30.³¹ It was springtime in Judea, approximately six weeks prior to ripe figs, around March/April during Passover week (Mark 11:12-13; 13:28; 14:1, 12).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The family of Jesus appears to have been among the lower echelons of society, indicated by the poor man’s sacrifice offered in Luke 2:22-24 (cf. Lev. 12:1-8). The term τέκτων is indicative of a craftsman working with wood, stone, and perhaps metal (K. M. Campbell, “Jesus’ Occupation,” JETS 148 [2005]: 501). While L. M. White maintains that in the Roman world “an artisan should typically have been of a higher social standing than a peasant farmer” (From Jesus to Christianity 102), A. A. Bell, Jr. probably goes too far in suggesting the family of Jesus would have been affluent (Exploring the NT World 208, 274). 

     ² The Synoptics explicitly mention only one of these Passovers, although additional springtime periods are implied (Mark 2:23-28; 6:39). 

     ³ A range of one to four years has been proposed for the length of Christ’s public ministry. On the complex nature of the data, see R. Riesner, Paul’s Early Period 48-58; C. L. Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels (2nd ed.) 223-29.

     ⁴ The time reference in John 19:14 is probably based on Roman civil time, thus “the sixth hour” was around 6:00 a.m. However, L. Morris maintains that neither Mark nor John was attempting to give a precise time of day but a mere approximation to convey a more general “late morning” (The Gospel according to John [rev.] NICNT 708).

     ⁵ For arguments and proponents supporting each of these views, see N. Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke NICNT 649-70. Geldenhuys concludes, “it is not John’s actual statements that create a problem in relation to the Synoptics, but a wrong interpretation of his statements” (663, emp. in the text).

     ⁶ The Hebrew name of the first month was Abib (or Aviv), meaning “barley ripening” inaugurating Spring (Ex. 13:4; 23:15; 34:18). During and after the Babylonian exile the first month of the Jewish calendar was called Nisan, meaning “month of beginning” (Neh. 2:1; Esth. 3:7).

     ⁷ Since each major Jewish holiday “consisted of an introductory feast, the main feast of seven days, and a closing feast of one day,” the Passover was “the introductory festival” that “culminated in the seven days’ feast of unleavened bread …” (C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the OT 3:218, emp. in the text).  

     ⁸ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ⁹ Josephus was aware of the biblical distinctions: “on the fourteenth day of the lunar month …. called the Passover …. The feast of unleavened bread succeeds that of the Passover, and falls on the fifteenth day of the month, and continues seven days, wherein they feed on unleavened bread …. But on the second day of unleavened bread, which is the sixteenth day of the month …” (Ant. 3.10.5). 

     ¹⁰ Oral traditions recorded in the Mishnah noted differences between the original Passover observance and later practices, including: “the Paschal lamb in Egypt was only on one night, whereas the Paschal lamb throughout the generations is observed for seven days” (Pesachim 9.5).

     ¹¹ Matt. 26:18; cf. Ex. 12:48; Num. 9:2-6; Deut. 16:1; 2 Chron. 30:1, 5; 35:16-17; 1 Cor. 5:8.

     ¹² Mark 14:12; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor. 5:7; cf. Ex. 12:21; Deut. 16:6.

     ¹³ Matt. 26:19; Mark 14:16; Luke 22:8, 13.

     ¹⁴ Matt. 26:17; Mark 14:12, 14; Luke 22:11, 15; cf. Deut. 16:7; 2 Chron. 30:18.

     ¹⁵ Ex. 12:14, 24, 43; 13:10; Num. 9:3.

     ¹⁶ Ex. 12:14; 13:3-4; Luke 22:7.

     ¹⁷ Luke 22:1; Acts 12:3-4; 20:6; cf. John 13:29. 

     ¹⁸ Ex. 12:21; Deut. 16:6; Mark 14:12a; Luke 22:7.

     ¹⁹ Matt. 26:17, 19; Mark 14:12b, 14, 16; Luke 22:8, 11, 13, 15.

     ²⁰ Ex. 12:14a, 26-27; Deut. 16:1.

     ²¹ Matt. 26:2, 18; Mark 14:1; Luke 2:41; John 2:13, 23; 6:4; 11:55; 12:1; 13:1; 18:39.

     ²² Matthew employs the adj. πρῶτος (“first”) to convey sequence (10:2; 12:45; 20:8, 10; 21:28, 31, 36; 22:25; 27:64), but also prominence (19:30; 20:16, 27; 22:38). Mark employs the adj. πρῶτος (“first”) to convey sequence (12:20), but mostly prominence (6:21; 9:35; 10:31, 44; 12:28, 29).

     ²³ See N. Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke NICNT 661-63; T. von Zahn, Introduction to the NT 282. 

     ²⁴ Note Num. 28:17-25; cf. Lev. 7:15-19; Deut. 12:6-7, 17-21, 27. 

     ²⁵ Cf. Num. 9:6; 2 Chron. 30:2-3, 18. It has been noted that after the first evening of the Passover feast the next important meal was at noon the next day (B. D. Smith, “The Chronology of the Last Supper,” WTJ 53 [1991]: 29-45; C. L. Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of the NT 216-25).

     ²⁶ Among English versions mistranslating the text are CSB, ISV, NASB, NLT. 

     ²⁷ Note “the seventh day of the week, being a Sabbath, was distinguished above the other days of the week, as a day that was sanctified to the Lord in a higher degree than the rest …” (C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the OT 3:217). 

     ²⁸ See esp. L. Morris, The Gospel according to John (rev.) NICNT 686-87, 708; also C. L. Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of the NT 224-25; N. Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke NICNT 661-63; T. von Zahn, Introduction to the NT 664-65.

     ²⁹ Tacitus, Annals 15.44; Josephus, Ant. 18.4.1-2. Alternative dates are 27-37 (ISBE 4:2396-97). When Archelaus (son of Herod the Great) was deposed in AD 6, the Romans stationed military prefects in Judea to govern the province. Pontius Pilate was appointed in the twelfth year of Tiberius Caesar as the sixth prefect of Judea. 

     ³⁰ Jesus was first led to Annas and then taken to Caiaphas (John 18:13). When Judea became a province of the Roman Empire in AD 6, the Romans appointed Annas as high priest. Annas was then deposed in AD 15 and replaced by his son-in-law Caiaphas, although Annas and Caiaphas continued to jointly exercise authority and influence (cf. Luke 3:2).

     ³¹ The traditional date of AD 33 is based on the assumption that the Lord’s ministry began at year 30, even though the biblical record says he was “about” 30 years of age (Luke 3:23).

Related Posts: Chronology of the Death & Resurrection of Jesus, Harmonized Timeline of Christ's Resurrection 

Related articles: Dave Miller, At What Hour Was Jesus Crucified?

Image credit: http://www.withagratefulheart.com/2011/02/i-am-so-glad-that-jesus-loves-me.html 

His Name Shall Be Called “Immanuel”?

The prophecy of Isaiah 7:14 foretold that the name of the virgin-born son would be called “Immanuel.” However, no one in the biblical record is so designated. The one born to the virgin in the New Testament, in fulfillment of this prophecy, is named “Jesus” (Matt. 1:21, 25; Luke 1:31).  

Biblical usage of the word “name” goes well beyond a mere identifying moniker. It can also represent the individual himself (Matt. 6:9) or stand for one’s authority (Matt. 7:22; 10:22; 18:5, 20), or character (Matt. 10:41, 42), or reputation (Luke 6:22; Rev. 3:1). The Hebrew “Immanuel,” meaning “God with us” (cf. Isa. 8:8, 10), conveys the sense of comfort and assurance that inevitably accompanies divine presence.¹ 

Jesus is in fact recognized as God dwelling among humans (John 1:1, 14; 20:28). Isaiah had also stated, “his name shall be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace” (9:6).² These are not proper names but descriptive expressions.

Matthew’s Gospel, the only one to cite Isaiah 7:14, is framed on both ends with Jesus representing divine presence (1:23; 28:20). Jesus implicitly identifies himself as “Immanuel” in his words, “And behold, I am with you always, to the end of the age.”

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Gen. 21:20, 22; 26:3, 24, 28; 28:15, 20; 31:3, 5, 42; 35:3; 39:2, 3, 21-23; 46:4; 48:21; Ex. 3:12; Deut. 20:1; Psa. 23:4; et al.

     ² English Standard Version.

Related Posts: Isaiah 7:14

Image credit: 17th-century painting by Giovanni Battista Salvi da Sassoferrato, <https://www.facebook.com/MazzoliniArtcraft/photos/a.564866266876991/3884969088200009/>.

What Do We Know About Luke? Part 2

Luke the Physician

Luke is identified in Col. 4:14 as the beloved ἰατρός, “physician” or “one who heals, a mediciner,” cognate with the verbal ἰάομαι, to “heal” or “cure.”¹ These terms occur in Luke’s Gospel more than in any other NT document,² as well as the most healing stories and compassionate portrayals of the sick. The so-called Anti-Marcionite prologue to the Third Gospel describes the author as “Luke … a physician by profession.”

Medical Care in Luke’s Day

In ancient Rome the head of the household (paterfamilias) was the primary healthcare provider until the widespread influence of Greek medicine. Throughout the Empire were sanctuaries dedicated to healing gods, serving as an alternative or supplementary means of health care. In the absence of official regulations and restrictions, just about anyone could practice medicine. If one had successful results he could gain more patients; otherwise a different profession would be needed.³  Because of widespread fraud and quackery, many people were skeptical of the medical profession.⁴

Learned physicians typically relied on natural remedies rather than charms, chants, or other superstitious rituals.⁵ During the NT era there was an acknowledged need for physicians (Matt. 9:12; Mark 2:17; Luke 5:31), regarded as healers and generally valued (Luke 4:23), although their limitations were also recognized (Mark 5:26; Luke 8:43). 

There were basically two types of medical doctors. The Greek physician was highly trained in medical theory and typically served the aristocrats and military officers. The Roman physician (medicus) was more practical in his approach, learning from experience, and serving the general public and lower-ranking soldiers. Few freeborn Romans became doctors, while the bulk of Greek doctors in the Roman world were slaves or freedmen. The profession was often disparaged by Rome’s societal elites.⁶

An Educated Greek Physician

The preface of Luke’s Gospel fits into the mold of “the scientific tradition,” involving works on subjects that include science and medicine,⁷ the influence of which on someone educated as a physician would be expected. As “the most literary of the New Testament writers,”⁸ the quality of Luke’s literary style and range of vocabulary betrays a level of education that sets him apart from the medical quacks and literary aspirants of his day.

Luke’s training would have been based on the well-established medical tradition of Hippocrates II of Kos (ca. 460-370 BC), considered the father of western medicine. Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. AD 40-90), a contemporary of Luke, was a highly respected physician, botanist, and pharmacologist from the province of Cilicia, probably educated in Paul’s hometown of Tarsus. Dioscorides wrote a five-volume herbal-medicine encyclopedia entitled Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς in Greek, or De Materia Medica in Latin (“On Medical Material”), used by medical practitioners for over fifteen centuries. It is the primary source of historical information on treatments employed by the ancients, almost certainly including Luke himself. 

Luke’s Medical Language

W. K. Hobart argued that the writings of Luke are heavily saturated with medical terminology and thus indicative of having been composed by a physician,⁹ corroborated further by A. von Harnack, T. Zahn, and J. Moffatt. However, H. J. Cadbury has shown that a number of these terms were fairly common in antiquity and not necessarily limited to medical literature.¹⁰ Nonetheless, the high concentration in Luke-Acts is noteworthy and consistent with what a physician could have and perhaps would have drafted. Although the language and terminology do not “prove” the author was a physician, they do “corroborate in a striking manner the tradition that the author was Luke the physician.”¹¹

There “still remains a considerable number of words, the occurrence or frequency of which in S. Luke’s writings may very possibly be due to the fact of his being a physician. The argument is a cumulative one. Any two or three instances of coincidence with medical writers may be explained as mere coincidences: but the large number of coincidences renders this explanation unsatisfactory for all of them…”¹² It is most apparent that the “author of Luke-Acts had a particular interest in images of illness and healing, which were plausible within the ancient medical context, and far exceed word analogies.”¹³

A Medical Missionary

Luke was an evangelist, theologian, author, historian, biographer, and missionary. Yet Paul still recognized him as “the beloved physician” (Col. 4:14). Considering the constant threat of illness and the extreme sufferings Paul endured throughout his ministry (2 Cor. 6:4-5; 11:23-30; 12:5-10; Gal. 4:13-14), having Dr. Luke as a ministerial companion would have been a tremendous blessing, both for treatments and medical advice (cf. 1 Tim. 5:23; 2 Tim. 4:11).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Also cognate with Ἰασώ, the goddess of healing (H. G. Lidell, R. Scott, H. S. Jones, and R. McKenzie, Greek and English Lexicon 302, 303).

     ² The noun form occurs three times in Luke’s Gospel (4:23; 5:31; 8:43), once each in the other Synoptics (Matt. 9:12; Mark 2:17), and once in Paul as descriptive of Luke (Col. 4:14). The verbal form appears in Luke’s writings sixteen times (Luke 4:18; 5:17; 6:18, 19; 7:7; 8:47; 9:2, 11, 42; 14:4; 17:15; 22:51; Acts 9:34; 10:38; 28:8, 27), compared to only four times in Matthew (8:8, 13; 13:15; 15:28), once in Mark (5:29), three times in John’s Gospel (4:47; 5:13; 12:40), and only once more in the NT (Heb. 12:13). On Luke’s potential contribution to Hebrews, see K. L. Moore, “The Plural Authorship of Hebrews (Part 1),” Moore Perspective(20 July 2016), and Part 2 (27 July 2016), <Web>.

     ³ Marcus Valerius Martialis, Epigrams 1.47; 5.9; 8.74.

     ⁴ Pliny the Elder, Natural History 29.6-8.

     ⁵ Susan Francia and Anne Stobart, eds. Critical Approaches to the History of Western Herbal Medicine: From Classical Antiquity to the Early Modern Period (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014): 193. Also John Scarborough, “On the Understanding of Medicine Among the Romans,” in The Historian 39:2 (Feb. 1977): 213-27.

     ⁶ John Scarborough, “Romans and Physicians,” in The Classical Journal 65:7 (April 1970): 296-306.

     ⁷ Loveday Alexander, “Luke’s Preface in the Context of Greek Preface-Writing,” NovTest28:1 (1986): 48-74.

     ⁸ E. Earle Ellis, “St. Luke: Biblical Author,” Encyclopedia Britannica (17 May 2019), <Web>; “The literary style of his writings and the range of his vocabulary mark him as an educated man.”

     ⁹ The Medical Language of St. Luke (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1882).

     ¹⁰ The Book of Acts in History (London: Adam & Charles Black, 1955).

     ¹¹ Norval Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993): 20.

     ¹² Alfred Plummer, The Gospel According to S. Luke (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1902): lxiv; cf. lxiii-lxv.

     ¹³ Annette Weissenrieder, Images of Illness in the Gospel of Luke: Insights of Ancient Medical Texts (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003): 365.

Related Posts: What Do We Know About Luke Part 1

Image credit: Frans Hals’ St. Luke <https://www.ncregister.com/blog/st-luke-10-things-to-know-and-share>.