Sometime after Jesus was born, possibly up to two years later, “wise men from the east” arrived in Judea to visit the Christ-child (Matt. 2:1-13a).1 Recounted only in Matthew’s Gospel, the biblical record says nothing about their mode of transportation, where they came from, or how many there were. Stripping away centuries of human tradition and embellishment, what do we know about these enigmatic figures?
The Historical-Geographical Context
The main setting of Matthew’s narrative is “Bethlehem of Judea, in the days of Herod the king …” (v. 1). Not to be confused with a town by the same name in the land of Zebulun (Lower Galilee),2 this Bethlehem was in the region of Judea, about 6.5 miles (10.5 km) south of Jerusalem.3 Herod (the Great) had been appointed by the Roman Senate as Judea’s king and reigned from 37 BC until his death in 4 BC. As the recognized “king” of the Jews (vv. 1, 3, 9),4 he was naturally disturbed by news of another “king of the Jews” (v. 2; cf. 27:11, 29, 37). When Herod was troubled, all Jerusalem was troubled with him (v. 3).
The Mysterious Visitors
Matthew does not say how many there were, but the plural implies more than one. Considering Matthew’s affinity for “doublets” and “pairing” and the number “two,”5 the absence here of a specific number probably suggests more than a couple. A sizeable group is precluded by the fact they all entered what was likely a small house in a tiny rural village (v. 11a). Three is the traditional inference based on how many gifts they brought (v. 11b), but Matthew’s inspired report does not provide this information. Further, identifying them as “kings” (Tertullian, Ag. Marc. 3.13) cannot be established on the basis of contextually disconnected passages like Psalms 68:29; 72:10-11; and Isaiah 60:3.
Matthew refers to the men as μάγοι (vv. 1, 7, 16), plural of μάγος, usually translated in English “wise men” or transliterated “magi.”6 It is a relatively fluid term with various applications. Historically it has been viewed as a label for [Persian or Babylonian] wise men, priests, astrologers, interpreters of dreams, practitioners of various secret arts, or magicians (BDAG 608-609). However, the word was generally applied to any number of individuals exhibiting special knowledge and abilities presumed to be of supernatural means.7
Ancient Near-Eastern Wise Men
In sixth-century BC Babylon at least five groups of prominent and influential persons were collectively regarded as “the wise” (Dan. 2:12-14, 18, 24, 27, 48; 4:6, 18; 5:7, 8, 15; Jer. 50:35).
· The Hebrew term chartom [חַרְטֹם] (Dan. 1:20; 2:2, 10, 27; 4:7, 9; 5:11) refers to a “writer” or “engraver,” applied to a priestly class learned in the sacred writings.8 While variously rendered “magicians” (ASV, ESV, NIV, N/KJV, NRSV), “diviners” (ISV), “soothsayer priests” (NASB), and “diviner-priests” (HCSB), monotheistic Jewish exiles were also instructed in the language and literature of the Chaldeans (Dan. 1:4).
· The word ashshaph [אַשָּׁף] (Dan. 1:20; 2:2, 10, 27; 4:7; 5:7, 11, 15) is indicative of a “conjurer,” “enchanter,” or “necromancer.”9 English translations include “conjurers” (NASB), “enchanters” (ASV, ESV, NIV, NRSV), “mediums” (H/CSB), and “astrologers” (NET, N/KJV).
· The verbal kashaph [כָּשַׁף] (Dan. 2:2; Isa. 47:9, 12) is used for one who “engages in sorcery,” typically rendered in noun form, “sorcerer.” The practice of sorcery was also common in Egypt (Ex. 7:11) and forbidden among the Israelites (Ex. 22:18; Deut. 18:10; 2 Chron. 33:6; Mal. 3:5).
· The name Kasdim [כַּשְׂדִּי] (“Chaldeans”) is descriptive of a distinguished priestly order of Babylonian sages (Dan. 2:2-5, 10), having arisen among the prominent Chaldean peoples (Gen. 11:28; 15:7; Neh. 9:7) who were absorbed into the Babylonian empire.10
· The verbal gezar [גְּזַר], meaning to “cut” or “divide,” seems to refer to astrologers who studied the heavens in sections (Dan. 2:27; 4:7; 5:7, 11; cf. Isa. 47:13), variously rendered “diviners” (NASB, NIV, NRSV), “soothsayers” (ASV, N/KJV), and “astrologers” (ESV, ISV).
While the Babylonians lumped all these together into a single group, biblically a distinction is made between the pagan “wise men” and the Jewish “wise men.” The prophet Daniel (Belteshazzar) and his Hebrew companions—Hananiah (Shadrach), Mishael (Meshach), and Azariah (Abed-Nego)—were counted among “the wise” (Dan. 1:6-7, 17; 2:18) and seen as men of wisdom, knowledge, and understanding (Dan. 1:4, 6-7, 17, 20; 5:12). Daniel in particular, because of his divinely inspired insights and abilities (Dan. 2:14, 20-23; 5:11, 12, 14; 10:1), was appointed chief administrator over all “the wise” of Babylonia (Dan. 2:48), including those in the above categories (Dan. 5:11).
During the post-exilic Persian period (539 to 331 BC), the Greek historian Herodotus (contemporary of Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Malachi) applied the term μάγοι to a tribe of the ancient Medes, as well as to Persian priests (Histories 1.101, 132). The Roman philosopher Cicero (ca. 106-43 BC) referred to the μάγοι as Persian “augurs and diviners,” with “whole families and tribes devoted to this art,” and “no one can become king of the Persians until he has learned the theory and the practice of the μάγοι” (On Divination 1.90-91).
First-Century Near-Eastern Wise Men
In recounting the story of Daniel, the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (ca. AD 37-100) applied the term μάγοι to the Babylonian “wise men” (Ant. 10.10.3-4). The Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (20 BC – AD 50) considered the sophists [σοφιστής] or wise teachers to be μάγοι (Life of Moses 1.92) in a more natural or scientific sense (Spec. Laws 3.100; Every Good Man 74), without supernatural endowment (Life of Moses 1.277).11 Matthew, a contemporary of Josephus and Philo, used the same word μάγοι in recording the story of Christ’s curious guests. Matthew’s usage does not necessarily indicate their involvement in the occult or pagan ritualism and may simply describe individuals possessing special knowledge or wisdom.12
Where is “the East”?
The directional term “east” [ἀνατολή] does not identify a particular location other than pointing eastward in relation to Judea.13 Matthew merely reports the direction from which they came, afterwards departing for their own “country” [χώρα] (Matt. 2:1, 12). This latter term appears next in Matthew’s Gospel (4:14-16) in a quote from Isaiah 9:1-2, a messianic prophecy concerning Jesus’ Galilean ministry.
In Isaiah’s day the eastern nation of Assyria was rising in power, on the verge of attacking and conquering the northern kingdom of Israel (Isa. 8:4-7). From Assyria’s vantage point, they were looking “beyond the Jordan” as “the people residing in darkness saw a great light, and the ones residing in the country [χώρα] and shadow of death, a light has risen on them.” Later the Assyrians were conquered by the neighboring Babylonians, the next great empire of the east.
The only other occurrence of the word χώρα in Matthew still points eastward to the Decapolis district beyond the Jordan River (Matt. 8:28). Whether or not Matthew’s “wise men” traveled from a great distance cannot be confirmed.
The Star
The travelers were directed by a “star” [ἀστήρ] that led them to the region of Judea, then on to the village of Bethlehem (Matt. 2:2, 7, 9, 10). It is commonly assumed they were astrologers,14 practicing the art of celestial divination. Although astrology can be traced to Mesopotamia (ancient Assyria and Babylon) by the second century BC, astronomy dates back even earlier.
Astronomy, the scientific study of celestial bodies, relies more on mathematics and physics than mystical subjectivism. The “mathematisation of astronomical prediction” among the early Mesopotamians constituted “a revolution of wisdom,”15 paving the way for Greek mathematics and astronomy and the European scientific revolution. Pliny the Elder (ca. AD 23-79) wrote about the city of Babylon of his day, “The temple of Jupiter Belus still remains—it was here the creator of the science of astronomy was …” (Nat. Hist. 6.30).16 About a century earlier Cicero observed, “In Syria the Chaldeans are preeminent for their knowledge of astronomy and for their quickness of mind” (On Divination 1.91).
While the distinction between metaphysical astrology and the natural science of astronomy was often blurred in antiquity, Matthew’s observations do not automatically equate to pagan mystics. These men may have been astronomers who studied the stars and could identify something out of the ordinary unobservable to the untrained eye. Guidance was provided through channels with which they were familiar, indicative of God’s concern for accommodating people where they are.
Some have sought a naturalistic explanation for this “star,”17 which is unnecessary if it were a supernatural phenomenon. Almighty God, who created the heavenly luminaries, is certainly capable of controlling and manipulating anything in the physical universe for his own purpose (Psa. 8:1-3; 136:7-9; cf. Josh. 10:11-13; Isa. 38:8; Hab. 3:11).18 These “wise men,” who were later “divinely warned in a dream” (Matt. 2:12), were somehow in tune with the revelatory activity of God (cf. vv. 2, 5-6, 9).
Ethnoreligious Identification
A popular assumption is that these “wise men” were pagan Gentiles. But what Matthew says about them suggests otherwise. They traveled to Jerusalem, the center of the Jewish religion, and first made inquiries of the official ruler of the Jews (Matt. 2:1). They had knowledge of and were anticipating the Jewish messianic king (v. 2a). They desired to pay homage to him (v. 2b).19 Having located the one fulfilling the prophetic Hebrew scriptures, “they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy” and offered obeisance to him (vv. 10, 11a). The gifts they brought (v. 11b) had special significance in Judaism.20 They even received divine communication (v. 12; cp. 1:20; 2:13, 19, 22).
None of these observations offers definitive proof, but collectively they argue in favor of persons with a background in (or heavily influenced by) Judaism. It was not uncommon for Jews living in the east to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem (Acts 2:5, 9). These “wise men” could very well have been descendants of Jewish exiles still living beyond the eastern borders of the Roman empire,21 not to mention the enduring impact of exilic prophets like Ezekiel and more notably Daniel.
Alternatively, in view of strong Jewish persuasion and proselytizing, the prospect of proselytes (Matt. 23:15; Acts 2:10; 6:5; 13:43) or God-fearing semi-converts (Acts 10:2; 13:16, 26; 17:17; 18:7) could account for these “wise men” being ethnically non-Jewish, although religiously non-Jewish seems less likely. In none of their reported interactions in Judea is any hint of Jew-Gentile tensions (cp. Acts 10:28).
Guided by Scripture and Divine Providence
With knowledge of the messianic king and guided by “his star” to Judea, the “wise men” made inquiries in the Jewish capital city, where the leading priests and scribes were familiar with the biblical prophecy concerning the Messiah’s place of birth (Matt. 2:1-6). Quoting Micah 5:2, unless he was reciting the actual words of these Jewish scholars, Matthew seems to provide his own Greek translation.22
With more precise details from scripture, the “wise men” continued to be guided by the star as it “went before them, till it stood over where the young child was” (v. 9), thereby confirming they had not been misinformed by the Jewish authorities. However the exact location was pinpointed, they were at least led to the general vicinity where further inquiries could be made. When they located and entered “the house” and saw the child and his mother (no mention of Joseph on this occasion), they prostrated themselves in reverence before the Christ-child (v. 11a).
They must have spent the night somewhere, perhaps afforded hospitality in the same house, and were divinely warned in a dream to avoid Herod on the way home (v. 12). The costly gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh (v. 11b) would have enabled Joseph, a relatively poor carpenter already far from home,23 to provide for his family during their extended excursion in Egypt (vv. 13-15).
What Happened Next?
The “wise men” departed for their own country (vv. 12b-13a), and this is the last time they are explicitly alluded to in scripture. Did their extraordinary encounter with the Christ make a lasting impression on them and those within their circle of influence? About three decades later, visitors from the east, both Jews and proselytes, traveled to Jerusalem and had the opportunity to hear and obey the message of the Christ in its fulness (Acts 2:5, 8-11, 37-42). Persecution later forced believers to scatter from the region, many of whom likely returned to their homelands, “proclaiming good news of the word” (Acts 8:4). In the decades that followed, churches were established eastward throughout the Tigris-Euphrates valley from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf.24
Conclusion
In this rather obscure episode at the beginning of Jesus’ life on earth, we clearly see the providential working of God in fulfilling his redemptive plan. We also see very different responses to the Christ.
· Herod reacted with self-centered jealousy and hostility. He represents those who respond to the good news of Jesus Christ, not with joyous celebration but with antagonism and intolerance fueled by selfish aspirations.
· The people of Jerusalem were troubled, even though the long-anticipated messianic king had arrived in their own backyard. They were oblivious, distracted by worldly affairs. They epitomize individuals enslaved by their own spiritual apathy, having no interest in the way of Christ and burdened by the diversions and deceptions of a fallen world.
· The chief priests and scribes, despite their thorough Bible knowledge, were not prepared to act upon what they should have known. Even though the word of God is still accessible to all who desire to know his will, without doing his will anything else is incomplete.
· The “wise men” acted upon what little they knew, diligently searched for the Lord, and found him. The divine promise, “seek and you will find,” has been repeatedly confirmed through the ages and remains as true as ever.25
The wise still seek him and are open to God’s direction. The wise rejoice with exceedingly great joy when the divine purpose is realized. The wise give up earthly treasures for much greater heavenly priorities. The wise still share the good news they have found.
--Kevin L. Moore
Endnotes:
1 Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation. The celestial sign marking the birth of Jesus appeared up to two years before the wise men arrived in Judea (Matt. 2:7, 16). The word παιδίον (“child”) in Matt. 2:8-14 is a fairly broad term that can refer to a newborn at the moment of birth (John 16:21) or of eight days (Luke 1:59, 66, 76; 2:17) or forty days (Luke 2:27; cf. v. 22; Lev. 12:1-8), or a baby of three months (Heb. 11:23), or a toddler (Matt. 2:20-21), or a youngster up to twelve years old (Mark 5:39-42; cf. Luke 2:40-42).
2 Josh. 19:15; cf. Judg. 12:8, 10.
3 Luke 2:4, 15; John 7:42; cf. Gen. 35:19; 48:7; Judg. 17:7-9; 19:1-2; Ruth 1:1-2; 1 Sam. 16:1, 4; 17:12.
4 Our current system of dating was formulated by the sixth-century Roman monk Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia, but it is now known that his calculations were off by at least four years. There is no year zero, and Dionysius marked the beginning of the Lord’s ministry at year 30 despite Jesus’ age being imprecisely noted by Luke as “about” [ὡσεί] 30 (Luke 3:23).
5 Note Matthew’s repeated use of the number “two” (4:18, 21; 20:21; 26:37, 60; 27:21). In parallel accounts, Matthew seems to “double” the individual characters portrayed in the other Gospels (8:28-34; 20:29-34; 21:2-7). Matthew has double metaphors (5:14-16) and double parables (13:44, 45). Similar teachings or events appearing in two different contexts, so-called “doublets,” are numerous.
6 Transliterated “magi” (CEB, CJB, LSV, NAB, NASB, NIV, Darby), or variously rendered “wise men” (ASV, CSB, ISV, EHV, ERV, ESV, MEV, NCV, NET, N/KJV, N/RSV, Douay-Rheims), “astrologers” (TLB, NLT, J. B. Phillips NT, Wycliffe Bible, NRSV n.), and even “kings” (Wycliffe Bible n.).
7 G. Delling, “μάγος,” in G. Kittel, ed., Theological Dictionary of the NT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969): 4:356-57. The only other occurrence of this noun in the NT is in reference to a Jewish false prophet on the island of Cyprus (Acts 13:6-8), while the verbal μαγεύω is applied to Simon, a practitioner of μαγεία (“magic” or “sorcery”) in Samaria (Acts 8:9, 11).
8 C. F. Keil, Biblical Commentary on the Book of Daniel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971): 87. A similar order is documented in ancient Egyptian society (Gen. 41:8, 24; Ex. 7:11, 22; 8:7, 18-19; 9:11), and Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians (Acts 7:22).
9 F. Brown, et al., eds.,The New Brown–Driver–Briggs–Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1979): 80. The LXX rendering in Dan. 2:2 is τοὺς μάγους, and μάγον in v. 10.
10 C. F. Keil, op. cit. 78, 87-88. The Orthodox Jewish Bible renders μάγοι in Matt. 2:1 and 7, chachamim.
11 G. Delling, op. cit. 4:358; cf. also J. P. Lewis, The Gospel According to Matthew: Part I (Austin, TX: Sweet, 1976): 43-44.
12 The World English Bible submits “wise men” as an English equivalent of μάγοι and includes in the footnote at Matt. 2:1, among various translational options, “teachers, scientists, physicians ...”
13 The noun ἀνατολή in Matt. 2:2, 9, in the singular form with the article in connection with the “star,” is probably not a geographical reference but rather astronomical, “rising” (BDAG 74; see CSB, ESV, NAB, NET, NIV, NLT, NRSV).
14 Some English versions render μάγοι in this passage “astrologers” (TLB, NLT, J. B. Phillips NT, Wycliffe Bible, NRSV n.); with less specificity, “men who studied stars” (GNT); “People famous for studying the stars” (CEV n.).
15 David Brown, Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology: Cuneiform Monographs 18 (Groningen: Styx Publications, 2000): 209-238; cf. also Asgar Aaboe, “Babylonian mathematics, astrology, and astronomy,” in J. Boardman, et al., eds., The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires, 2nd ed., The Cambridge Ancient History 3.2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991): 276-292.
16 Asgar Aaboe, Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy (NY: Springer-Science+Media, 2001): 28.
17 Suggestions have included a comet, a meteor, a nova, a supernova, and planetary conjunction. Since “planets” were identified by the Greeks as ἀστέρες πλανῆται (“wandering stars”), it is of interest to note that the heliacal rising of the planet Jupiter (visible above the eastern horizon just before the sun’s appearance) is documented April–December 6 BC (David Weintraub, “Can astronomy explain the biblical Star of Bethlehem?” The Conversation [23 Dec. 2014], Link). Chinese astronomers reportedly witnessed a slow-moving, long-tailed comet (sui-hsing) during March of 5 BC that remained over 70 days in the region of Capricorn (The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 32 [1991]: 389-407). Shortly before Herod’s death there was an eclipse of the moon (Josephus, Ant. 17.6.4), which occurred on 13th March 4 BC (see ISBE 3:1381).
18 There does not seem to be a clear connection here with the prophecy recorded in Num. 24:17, seeing that the “star” of which Balaam spoke was a symbolic reference to royal splendor (cp. Rev. 22:16). Matthew, who incorporates plethoric fulfilled OT prophecies in his Gospel, makes no mention of it. Nevertheless, Balaam had come from “the east” (Num. 23:7) and was later called μάγος by Philo (Life of Moses 1.276). Many argue that the star of Bethlehem was merely “literary and theological” rather than literal: see R. H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994): 28.
19 The verbal προσκυνέω can simply describe “bowing down to show reverence” (Matt. 18:26; 20:20; cf. 17:6), and in the sense of “worship” it conveys something reserved only for God (4:9-10). How well these “wise men from the east” comprehended the deity of Christ is debatable. Nevertheless, Matthew would have had a much clearer understanding, and his repeated reports of προσκυνέω directed toward Jesus (2:2, 8, 11; 8:2; 9:18; 14:33; 15:25; 28:9, 17) certainly gives the impression of Christ’s exalted nature.
20 Gold was used for the tabernacle/temple and its furnishings and utensils (Ex. 25:11–26:37; 30:1-5; Matt. 23:16-17; etc.) and priestly garments (Ex. 28:2-36). Frankincense was offered with grain offerings (Lev. 2:1-2, 15-16; 6:15), placed on the gold-plated table of showbread (Lev. 24:7) outside the veil (Ex. 30:6; 40:22), and used to make incense (Ex. 30:34). Myrrh was reserved for producing “a holy anointing oil” for consecrating the tabernacle, its furnishings, and priests (Ex. 30:22-25). These gifts were fit for a Jewish (Davidic) king (1 Kings 10:2; Song 3:6-7); cf. also Psa. 45:8; 72:15; Isa. 60:6. Note that myrrh was also used in the crucifixion and burial of Jesus (Mark 15:23; John 19:39).
21 After the nation of Israel divided in 931 BC, the northern kingdom was conquered and exiled by the Assyrians in 722 BC, and the southern kingdom was conquered and exiled by the Babylonians, with three major deportations in 597, 587, and 582 BC. Having conquered the Babylonians in 539 BC, Cyrus the Great permitted the Jews to return to their homeland (2 Chron. 36:20-23), but most of the Jewish exiles remained in the east or migrated farther west. Included among the returnees were families of former residents of Bethlehem (Ezra 2:21; Neh. 7:26).
22 Some wording parallels the LXX, while the rest is unique to Matthew. “Judah” is the contemporized version of the archaic “Ephrathah,” with further messianic implications (cf. 1:2-3; Gen. 49:10). Conventional targumic paraphrasing and midrashic interpretation appear to have been employed, along with wording that echoes other scriptures (e.g., Mic. 5:4; 2 Sam. 5:2; 1 Chron. 11:2). Nevertheless, the essential meaning remains intact. See C. L. Blomberg, “Matthew,” in G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson, eds., Commentary on the NT Use of the OT (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007): 5-7.
23 Before their trek to Bethlehem, Joseph and Mary were living in the Galilean town of Nazareth (Luke 1:26; 2:4). At around six weeks of age, baby Jesus was taken to Jerusalem where a sacrifice was offered (Luke 2:22-38). The traditional sacrifice was a lamb and a young pigeon or turtledove (Lev. 12:6), but if one could not afford a lamb, the alternative sacrifice of the poor was two turtledoves or two young pigeons (Lev. 12:8). The fact that only two birds were offered (Luke 2:24) indicates that Jesus was born into a relatively poor family.
24 See P. Jenkins, The Lost History of Christianity (NY: HarperCollins, 2008): 1-13; D. T. Irvin and S. W. Sunquist, History of the World Christian Movement (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2001): 1:57-65.
25 Deut. 4:29; 1 Chron. 16:10; 22:19; 28:8-9; 2 Chron. 7:14; 11:16; 14:4; 15:2, 12-13; 19:3; 20:3-4; 30:19; 31:21; 34:3; Ezra 4:2; 6:21; 7:10; 8:21, 22; Job 5:8; 8:5; Psa. 9:10; 14:2; 22:26; 24:6; 27:4, 8; 34:10; 40:16; 53:2; 63:1; 69:32; 70:4; 105:3, 4; 119:2, 45; Prov. 2:4-5; 8:17; 28:5; Isa. 11:10; 26:9; 51:1; 55:6; 58:2; Jer. 26:19; 29:13; Jer. 50:4-5; Hos. 3:5; 5:15; 10:12; Amos 5:4, 6, 14; Zeph. 2:3; 8:21, 22; Mal. 2:7; 3:1; Matt. 6:33; 7:7-8; Luke 11:9; 12:31; John 5:30; Acts 15:17; 17:27; Col. 3:1; Heb. 11:6; 13:14.
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