Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in Romans

More scripture citations are found in Paul’s letter to the Romans than in all the rest of his writings combined.¹ The apostle clearly assumed that the saints in mid-first-century Rome were well acquainted with and highly regarded the sacred writings of the Old Testament.

Discerning OT Use in the NT

There is no consensus among biblical scholars about how to identify and categorize the varied uses of OT passages in the NT. With some degree of ambiguity, analysts speak of citations, quotations, paraphrases, allusions, verbal parallels, thematic echoes, and recollections. Quotations can be subcategorized as direct quotes, loose or paraphrastic quotes, formulaic citations (with an introductory statement), and informal citations (without an introductory statement). Adding to the confusion and the inconsistency of proposed classifications are the varying ways in which a number of biblical texts have been employed, merging into multiple categories.²

For our purposes, keeping it simple, the identifying labels are limited to “quotes” (whether direct, loose, paraphrase, etc.) and “allusions” (whether echoes, parallels, recollections, summaries, etc.). There are potentially up to sixty-eight OT quotes and twenty-one OT allusions in Romans.

Use of the OT in Romans

The highest concentration is in chapters 9–11, where Paul addresses Israel’s place in salvation history: fourteen citations in chapter 9, eleven in chapter 10, twelve in chapter 11, for a combined total of thirty-seven. A disproportionate number also occurs in chapter 3, with eleven citations, providing the biblical framework for Paul’s explanation of how God makes people righteous. There are no scripture references in chapters 6 and 16, and only one apparent allusion in chapter 5.

In Romans Paul borrows from nineteen OT books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Deuteronomy, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Chronicles, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Nahum, Habakkuk, Malachi. Heaviest usage comes from Isaiah, Psalms, and Deuteronomy.³ The scripture references below are numbered according to the English Bible.

Romans text	OT reference	form
Rom. 1:17	Habakkuk 2:4b	quote
Rom. 1:23	Psalm 106:20	allusion
Rom. 2:6	Psalm 62:12/Proverbs 24:12	quote
Rom. 2:11	2 Chronicles 19:7	allusion
Rom. 2:24	Isaiah 52:5	allusion
Rom. 2:24	Ezekiel 36:20-23?	allusion
Rom. 3:4a	Psalm 116:11	allusion
Rom. 3:4b	Psalm 51:4	quote
Rom. 3:10	Ecclesiastes 7:20	allusion
Rom. 3:10-12	Psalm 14:1-3/53:1-3	quote
Rom. 3:13	Psalm 5:9	quote
Rom. 3:13	Psalm 140:3	quote
Rom. 3:14	Psalm 10:7	quote
Rom. 3:15	Proverbs 1:16	quote
Rom. 3:15-17	Isaiah 59:7-8	quote
Rom. 3:18	Psalm 36:1	quote
Rom. 3:20	Psalm 143:2	allusion
Rom. 4:3	Genesis 15:6	quote
Rom. 4:7-8	Psalm 32:1-2	quote
Rom. 4:9	Genesis 15:6	quote
Rom. 4:11	Genesis 17:10-11	allusion
Rom. 4:17	Genesis 17:5	quote
Rom. 4:18	Genesis 15:5b	quote
Rom. 4:22	Genesis 15:6b	quote
Rom. 4:25	Isaiah 53:4-5	allusion
Rom. 5:12	Genesis 2:17; 3:19	allusion
Rom. 7:2-3	Deuteronomy 22:22	allusion
Rom. 7:7	Exodus 20:17	quote
Rom. 7:11	Genesis 3:13	allusion
Rom. 8:33	Isaiah 50:8-9	allusion
Rom. 8:34	Psalm 110:1; Isaiah 53:12	allusion
Rom. 8:36	Psalm 44:22	quote
Rom. 9:7	Genesis 21:12	quote
Rom. 9:9	Genesis 18:10, 14	quote
Rom. 9:12	Genesis 25:23	quote
Rom. 9:13	Malachi 1:2-3	quote
Rom. 9:15	Exodus 33:19	quote
Rom. 9:17	Exodus 9:16	quote
Rom. 9:20	Isaiah 29:16; 45:9	allusion
Rom. 9:25	Hosea 2:23	quote
Rom. 9:26	Hosea 1:10	quote
Rom. 9:27-28	Isaiah 10:22-23	quote
Rom. 9:28	Isaiah 28:22	allusion
Rom. 9:29	Isaiah 1:9	quote
Rom. 9:33	Isaiah 8:14; 28:16	quote
Rom. 10:5	Leviticus 18:5	quote
Rom. 10:6-8	Deuteronomy 9:4a; 30:12-14	quote
Rom. 10:11	Isaiah 28:16	quote
Rom. 10:13	Joel 2:32	quote
Rom. 10:15	Isaiah 52:7; Nahum 1:15	quote
Rom. 10:16	Isaiah 53:1a	quote
Rom. 10:18	Psalm 19:4	quote
Rom. 10:19	Deuteronomy 32:21	quote
Rom. 10:20	Isaiah 65:1	quote
Rom.10:21	Isaiah 65:2	quote
Rom. 11:1-2	Psalm 94:14; 1 Samuel 12:22	allusion
Rom. 11:3	1 Kings 19:10, 14	quote
Rom. 11:4	1 Kings 19:18	quote
Rom. 11:8	Deuteronomy 29:4	quote
Rom. 11:8	Isaiah 29:10	quote
Rom. 11:9-10	Psalm 69:22-23	quote
Rom. 11:11	Deuteronomy 32:21	allusion
Rom. 11:26-27	Isaiah 59:20-21 (Psalm 14:7; 53:6)	quote
Rom. 11:34-35	Isaiah 40:13	quote
Rom. 11:34-35	Job 41:11	quote
Rom. 12:16-17	Proverbs 3:4, 7	allusion
Rom. 12:19	Leviticus 19:18a	allusion
Rom. 12:19	Deuteronomy 32:35	quote
Rom. 12:20	Proverbs 25:21-22	quote
Rom. 13:9	Exodus 20:13-17; Deut. 5:17-21; Lev. 19:18	quote
Rom. 14:11	Isaiah 45:23	quote
Rom. 14:13	Leviticus 19:14	allusion
Rom. 15:3	Psalm 69:9	quote
Rom. 15:9	2 Samuel 22:50; Psalm 18:49	quote
Rom. 15:10	Deuteronomy 32:43	quote
Rom. 15:11	Psalm 117:1	quote
Rom. 15:12	Isaiah 11:10	quote
Rom. 15:21	Isaiah 52:15	quote

Conclusion

Paul’s prolific use of the perfect passive indicative formula γέγραπται (“it is written”)⁴ consistently refers to the sacred writings having been recorded in the past with current and ongoing applicability. “For whatever was formerly written was written for our instruction, so that through the perseverance and through the encouragement of the scriptures we may have hope” (Rom. 15:4). Although no longer binding as a set of ordinances and rituals (Rom. 6:14; 7:4), these OT writings are holy, just, and good (Rom. 7:12) and remain historically, prophetically, and instructionally useful.

As “a living voice,”⁵ the scriptures, “according to Paul, are nothing other than God speaking to his people in the present through his words of judgment and salvation to Israel in the past.”⁶ May we have the same conviction, reverence, and reliance on God’s inspired word as Paul has demonstrated in Romans.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Beyond Romans, the most OT citations in the NT are in Matthew, Acts, and Hebrews respectively. Notwithstanding possible allusions and verbal parallels, there are no OT quotations in Philippians, Colossians, 1-2 Thessalonians, Titus, Philemon, 1-3 John, Jude, and Revelation. See Terry Enns, “Romans: the Most OT Book in the NT,” Words of Grace (13 May 2015), <Link>.

     ² See Douglas S. Huffman, Understanding the New Testament Use of the Old Testament: Forms, Features, Framings, and Functions (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2024) 25-43.

     ³ The quotations vary according to (a) agreement with the LXX and Hebrew text (3:13; 4:17, 18; 7:7; 8:36; 9:7, 12, 15; 10:13; 13:9; 15:3); (b) agreement with the LXX against the Hebrew text (4:3, 7-8; 9:29; 10:16, 21; 12:20; 15:10, 21); (c) agreement with the Hebrew text against the LXX (11:35); (d) at variance with both where they agree (3:4, 10-12, 18; 9:13, 25; 10:5, 19; 11:3, 8; 15:9, 11); (e) at variance with both where they vary (1:17; 2:24; 3:14-17; 9:9, 17, 26-28, 33; 10:6-8, 11, 15, 20; 11:4, 9-10, 26-27, 34; 12:19; 14:11; 15:12). See E. Earle Ellis, Paul’s Use of the OT (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991) 150-54.

     ⁴ Rom. 1:17; 2:24; 3:4, 10; 4:17; 8:36; 9:13, 33; 10:15; 11:8, 26; 12:19; 14:11; 15:3, 9, 21. Scripture citations are the author’s own translation.

     ⁵ Richard B. Hays, “Three Dramatic Roles: The Law in Romans 3–4,” in James D. G. Dunn, ed. Paul and the Mosaic Law (Grand Rapids; Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1996) 161.

     ⁶ Mark A. Seifrid, “Romans,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, eds. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007) 608.

Related Posts: What the Scriptures Say About the Scriptures, Key to Understanding Romans 

Related articles:

 

Image credit: https://bcooper.ca/2025/03/25/the-struggle-within-a-study-of-romans-715-20/

God’s Purpose for Israel in the Old Testament

God’s purpose for Israel began with the Abrahamic covenant (Gen. 12:1-3; 18:17-19; 22:17-18), renewed in Isaac and Jacob (26:3-5; 28:13-15) and their descendants (46:3; 48:3-4; 49:10), intended as a blessing to “all the families [nations] of the earth” (12:3; 18:18; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). Having delivered the Israelites from Egyptian bondage and reminding them of the covenant made with their forefathers (Ex. 2:24-25; 6:1-8), the Lord spoke through Moses (Ex. 19:3-9) reaffirming divine authority and providential care for his covenant people, along with expectations of obedience (vv. 3-6). Yet their selection in no way meant the exclusiveness of a single-nation God.

A Kingdom of Priests

“And you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation …” (Ex. 19:6a). A priest serves in a mediatorial role between fellow-humans and God, so an entire priestly kingdom implies “Israel’s mission as that of bringing other peoples to the Lord…”¹ As “a holy nation,” the holiness of God was to be displayed through his people, as “Israel was called to be the vehicle of the knowledge and salvation of God to the nations of the earth.”² To this solemn mission the post-exodus Israelites pledged their obedience (v. 8).

Unfortunately, God’s people did not remain faithful to their covenant agreement (1 Kings 19:10; Jer. 31:32; cf. Jer. 7:25-28; Psa. 95:8-11; Acts 7:51-53) and suffered the consequences, including a divided nation (1 Kings 12–2 Kings 17), Assyrian exile of the northerners (2 Kings 15–17), and Babylonian exile of the southerners (2 Kings 23–25). Nevertheless, God still loved his people and sought to bring them back to obedient faith, continuing to work with them to fulfill his overall plan.

God’s “Witnesses”

Through Isaiah, the Lord issued stern warnings of judgment (Isa. 1–39), as well as messianic hope (chaps. 40–66). The restoration of his covenant people was assured (43:1-7), and they in turn were to be his “witnesses” to the nations (43:8-13; cf. 44:8). A witness is superfluous without a testimony and those to whom the testimony can be conveyed. Here “all the nations” are to be on the receiving end of Israel’s testimony.

Yahweh has such [witnesses] available – his own special people. In fact that is in a sense their very destiny. Israel is not to be a mighty worldly power dominating other nations and exercising world-empire. She is to be witness to what God has done for her, witness by her very existence and witness by the testimony that she can bear orally. By thus witnessing she fulfils her calling of being God’s ‘servant,’ whom he has chosen.³

The responsibility of the Israelites to be God’s witnesses was based on what he had done and was doing for them (43:10-25), and simply because of who he is (44:6-8). “This people I have formed for myself; they shall declare my praise” (43:21).

The God of All People

The approximately 175 allusions in the Psalms to the universality of God’s reign demonstrate the extent of his interest and care. “In the Psalms there are seventy-six references to the ‘nations’, even though the Psalms are part of the worship of Israel. And if you add references to ‘all the earth’ and ‘the peoples’ it is quite startling to see how much the Psalms teach us of God’s concern for all mankind.”⁴

In 1 Chronicles 16:7-36, when the ark of God was returned to the tabernacle, David’s song of thanksgiving shows his awareness of the universality of God’s reign (esp. vv. 8, 14, 23, 24, 28, 30, 31, 33). David realized that Yahweh is not limited to the people of Israel alone. In 1 Kings 8:38-43, at the dedication of the temple, Solomon’s prayer evinces an awareness of the Lord’s purpose for his people, showered with grace and blessings as they submit to his holy will (vv. 38-40). Solomon prayed for the “foreigner, who is not of your people Israel” (v. 41a), foreseeing God’s message spreading to distant lands (vv. 41b-42), “that all peoples of the earth may know your name and fear you, as do your people Israel …” (43). Note also 1 Kings 8:60; 10:1, 9.

Jonah was a Jewish prophet sent to preach to a non-Jewish people (Jonah 1:1-2), a clear reflection of the Lord’s willingness to save even heathen nations who submit to him as the universal God of the entire earth.

The book of Jonah is so significant for understanding the biblical basis of mission because it treats God’s mandate to his people regarding the Gentile peoples and thus serves as the preparatory step to the missionary mandate of the New Testament. But it is also important for catching a glimpse of the deep resistance this mandate encounters from the very servant Yahweh has chosen to discharge his worldwide work.⁵

Granted, Jonah was a reluctant missionary, but the point is the Lord’s concern for all people and his willingness to proactively give them an opportunity to come to him. Jeremiah was appointed “a prophet to the nations” (Jer. 1:5b). In fact, God’s blessings were always meant to include the Gentiles, anticipating a time when “the nations” would bow to the Creator.⁶  

First-Century Jews

That at least some Jews understood their God-given purpose is apparent in their proselytizing efforts. Jesus acknowledged that the scribes and Pharisees were known for traveling great distances to win converts to Judaism (Matt. 23:15). In the first century AD, there were a number of proselytes (Acts 2:10; 6:5; 13:43) and semi-convert God-fearers (Acts 10:2; 13:16, 26; 17:17; 18:7).

In Rom. 2:17-20, Paul reiterates God’s intended purpose for Israel. Their privileged status necessarily came with great responsibility: a guide to the spiritually blind,⁷ a light to those in spiritual darkness,⁸ an instructor of the foolish (morally and spiritually uninformed), a teacher of “children,” not literally, but the immature, clueless, uninstructed in God’s way (cf. vv. 21a, 22a; compare Jonah 4:11; Matt. 18:5). This highlights a significant expectation and duty that stems from divinely-gifted prerogatives. The people of Israel, having been granted access to the special revelation of the divine will, were necessarily obligated to share that knowledge with others.

Conclusion:

Missionary work was not something that developed in the latter (Christian) stage of God’s plan but has always been an integral part. Although Israel’s mission was often neglected and unfulfilled, it was God’s purpose for them nonetheless.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Clyde M. Woods, People’s OT Notes: Genesis–Exodus 1:175.

     ² C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the OT 2:98-100. “It is here that Israel’s missionary role became explicit … The whole nation was to function on behalf of the kingdom of God in a mediatorial role in relation to the nations…. Unfortunately for Israel, they rejected this priesthood of all believers …” (W. C. Kaiser, “Israel’s Missionary Call,” in R. D. Winter and S. C. Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives on the World Christian Movement 29).

     ³ H. C. Leupold, Exposition of Isaiah 84.

     ⁴ M. Griffiths, What on Earth Are You Doing 12. Note, e.g., Psalm 67; also 22:27-28; 33:5-12; 57:9; 66:7; 72:11, 17; 82:8; 86:9; 96.1-13; 108:3; 117:1-2.

     ⁵ J. Verkuyl, “Biblical Foundation for the Worldwide Mission Mandate,” in R. D. Winter and S. C. Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives on the World Christian Movement 40.

     ⁶ Cf. Psa. 22:27; 72:11, 17; 86:9; Isa. 2.1-4; 9:1-2; 42:1-6; 49:6; 51:4; Jer. 16.19-20; Zech. 8.20-23; Mic. 4.1-4; Hab. 2.4, 14, 20; et al.

     ⁷ Isa. 42:6-7; 49:6; cp. Matt. 15:14; Acts 26:18.

     ⁸ Echoing Isa. 49:6; cf. Isa. 11:10; 34:1; 42:6; 55:5. Paul’s commission as an apostle to the Gentiles not only parallels the commissioning of OT prophets (Gal. 1:15-16; cf. Isa. 49:1-6; Jer. 1:5) but “was in fulfillment of Israel’s own obligation to be a light to the Gentiles.... What Israel had not yet fully delivered Paul saw to be his task, but precisely as the fulfillment of Israel’s task” (J. D. G. Dunn, “In Search of Common Ground,” in J. D. G. Dunn, ed., Paul and the Mosaic Law 328).

Related Posts: Universal Priesthood of Believers

 

Image credit: https://x.com/KraantiKumar/status/1711883004669227441