The Church of the New Testament

     In the English Bible the word “church”¹ is translated from the Greek ekklēsia, a combination of the preposition ek (“out of”) and a derivative of the verb kaleō (to “call”). In secular Greek the term was used to describe an assembly of persons who had been called out (of their homes) or summoned together by a public herald (cf. Acts 19:39; Josephus, Ant. 12.164; 19.332). Many dispute the “called out” connotation of ekklēsia in the New Testament and insist that “assembly” or “gathering” is the sole meaning.² But let us not be too hasty to climb aboard the scholarly bandwagon. While etymology does not necessarily determine a word’s practical sense, to exclude it from the conversation is to miss out on helpful information about language development and usage.

     We acknowledge that the term ekklēsia is not inherently endowed with spiritual significance and can readily apply to any gathering of people, whether secular (Acts 19:32) or religious (1 Corinthians 14:23). However, we must not overlook the concept of word play in the New Testament and the fact that certain expressions did acquire special meaning within the context of the Christian movement.

     Note, in particular, the interplay and high concentration of the kaleō word group in the opening chapter of 1 Corinthians. Paul is a “called” [klētos] apostle (1:1), and the Corinthians are “called” [klētos] to be saints (1:2) and counted among those who are “called” [klētos] (1:24). The letter is addressed to the ekklēsia (lit. “called out”) at Corinth (1:2), in relation to all who “call on” [epikaleomai] the name of Jesus Christ (1:2). They were “called” [kaleō] (1:9; cf. 7:15-24) and should consider their “calling” [klēsis] (1:26; cf. 7:20). Is there a theological connection here? Although lost in English translation, the original Greek readers would surely have noticed the repetition and etymological composition of these words and recognized them as belonging to the same word group.

     There are numerous occurrences of ekklēsia in the New Testament where the idea of “assembly” or “gathering” is just too restrictive (cf. Matthew 16:18; Acts 8:1, 3; 12:1; 15:3; 1 Corinthians 10:32; 15:9; Galatians 1:13; Ephesians 1:22; 3:10, 21; 5:23, 25, 29, 32; Philippians 3:6; Colossians 1:18, 24; 1 Timothy 3:15). Moreover, when a prepositional phrase like “of God” (1 Corinthians 11:16) or “of Christ” (Romans 16:16) or “of the saints” (1 Corinthians 14:22) is appended, the expression has a special Christian flavoring that is clearly distinguished from customary usage (cf. BAGD 240-41). While the idea of assembling cannot be discounted, neither can it be regarded as the word’s exclusive function. God’s universal ekklēsia does not and cannot assemble together, and God’s local ekklēsia does not cease to exist in between corporate meetings.

     Paul employs the word ekklēsia to designate the recipients of five of his epistles,³ whereas four are addressed to hagioi (“saints” or “set-apart ones”).⁴ Although the former alludes to the collectivity of individuals and the latter references the individuals themselves, for all practical purposes the Lord’s ekklēsia is inseparable from the Lord’s hagioi (cf. 1 Corinthians 1:2; 14:22; 2 Corinthians 1:1). This further underscores the unique function in the New Testament of otherwise conventional terminology and the distinctiveness of God's people.

     The fact remains that Christians (who comprise the ekklēsia of Christ) have been called out of the world of darkness into the community of the saved (Acts 2:39, 47; Ephesians 4:1; 2 Thessalonians 2:14; etc.). The word ekklēsia, all by itself, has no theological implications, but the way in which it is consistently used in the New Testament certainly does.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The English word “church” can be traced back to the Greek kurios (“Lord”). The adjective kuriakos (“of the Lord”) was used in the phrase “house of the Lord,” which led to its application as a noun, kurikon. The medieval Greek form kurkon (“house of worship”) was borrowed into West Germanic as kirika, eventually producing the German kirche and the English “church” (J. Ayto, Dictionary of Word Origins 113-14).

     ² See Rob Redden, “Ekklesia and Etymology,” Gospel Advocate 152 (April 2010): 30; also Nicholas McDonald, “7 Ways to Do a Bad Word Study,” <link>; contra Wayne Jackson’s “Ekklesia Revisited,” <link>.

     ³ The Corinthian and Thessalonian letters and Galatians. In the LXX the term ekklēsia is regularly used to translate qahal in reference to the assembly of the Israelites, especially when gathered for religious purposes (Deuteronomy 31:30; Judges 20:2; cf. Hebrews 2:12; Acts 7:38; Josephus, Ant. 4.309). Gordon Fee suggests that the word was ready-made for the Christian communities because “Paul saw the church not only as in continuity with the old covenant people of God, but as in the true succession of that people” (First Corinthians 31-32; cf. Paul, the Spirit 65).

     ⁴ Romans, Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians. This terminology may have been drawn from Israel’s description as a “holy people” (e.g. Exodus 19:6; Psalm 16:3; 34:9; 74:3; Isaiah 4:3; Daniel 7:18, 21-22), perhaps indicating Paul’s belief in the continuity between the “saints” of Israel in the past and the Christian “saints” (cf. J. Dunn, Theology of Paul 44 n. 90, 330, 502, 708).

Related Posts: The Kingdom of God Part 3

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Paul’s Letter to the Philippians (Part 2)

Literary Integrity of Philippians

     A number of scholars regard Philippians as a collection of two or three separate letters.¹ In some places there is an awkward break in the sense, e.g. 2:19; 3:1-2; 4:9-10. Epaphroditus is reported to be very ill in 2:25-30 but not in 4:18. The attack on false teachers in 3:2-4 is unexpected and does not fit into the positive thrust of other parts of the letter. Appropriate endings are discernable at 4:1-9, 20-23, indicative of separate missives. Polycarp (Phil. 3.2) made reference to “letters” (plural) that Paul wrote to the Philippians, and distinct writings have since been identified as (a) 4:10-20; (b) 1:1–3:1; 4:4-7, 21-23; and (c) 3:2–4:3, 8-9. Nevertheless, how and why these hypothetical letters came to be joined together in the present form of Philippians is inexplicable.

     Seemingly awkward breaks are not unusual in a dictated letter from someone like Paul (cf. 1 Cor. 4:17–5:1; 5:13–6:1; 8:13–9:1; 16:12-13; 2 Cor. 9:15–10:1; Gal. 5:15-16; 6:10-11; et al.). It was not necessary to refer to Epaphroditus’ illness every time his name was mentioned, and the letter could have been written over an extended period of time. Varied topics and tones are not uncommon in Paul’s writings (cf. 1-2 Corinthians). The apparent conflict between Eudia and Syntyche (4:2-3) shows that even in Philippi there were negative situations to face. Discerning potential endings does not mean that they were intended to be endings, and even if they were, Paul may very well have decided to say more after these words were penned. While 1 Cor. 4:16-21 may sound like an ending, it certainly does not conclude the letter in which it is written!  

     While Polycarp is not an infallible source, assuming the observation above is true and has been accurately transmitted (cf. Phil. 3:1), Paul wrote letters that are no longer extant (e.g. 1 Cor. 5:9; Col. 4:16),² but this does not suggest that any were combined to form a single document. The various compilation theories, while interesting to consider, are less than convincing and offer no rational explanation for the letter’s current form. There is no legitimate reason to regard Philippians as anything but a literary unity.³

Conclusion:

     The ancient document we call “Philippians,” addressed to a group of first-century Macedonian Christians, has remained especially relevant and practical to all who have encountered it through the centuries, even to this very day. “Finally, brothers, whatever things are true, whatever things are honorable, whatever things are right, whatever things are pure, whatever things are lovable, and whatever things are commendable, if there is anything virtuous and praiseworthy, reflect on these things” (Phil. 4:8).⁴

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Among those who view Philippians as a collection of up to three letters are C. J. Pfeifer, “Three Letters” 363-68; J. Murphy-O’Connor, Letter-Writer 8, 32; B. D. Rahtjen, “Three Letters” 167-73; P. Sellew, “Fragments Hypothesis” 17-28; “Revisited” 327-29; and J. Veitch, Origins 123-28, 193-204. For a concise overview of the discussion, see E. D. Freed, Introduction 300-301; D. A. Carson, D. J. Moo, and L. Morris, An Introduction to the NT 325-26; L. A. Jervis, Purpose 65-68; R. E. Brown Introduction to the NT 496-98; cf. L. M. White, From Jesus to Christianity 189-94.

     ² See The Missing Letters of Paul.

     ³ Those who argue in favor of the letter’s integrity include M. Bockmuehl, Philippians 20-25; F. F. Bruce, Philippians 16-19; W. J. Dalton, “Integrity” 97-102; G. D. Fee, Philippians 21-23; H. Gamble, Textual History 145-46; D. Garland, “Composition” 141-73; K. Grayston, Letters 1-4; G. F. Hawthorne, Philippians xxix-xxxii; W. Hendrikson, Philippians 31-37; P. Holloway, “Apocryphal” 321-25; T. E. Pollard, “Integrity” 57-66; R. Russell, “Pauline” 295-306; M. Silva, Philippians 14-16; R. C. Swift, “Theme” 234-54; and D. F. Watson, “Rhetorical Analysis” 57-88.

     ⁴ Scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

Related Posts: Philippians Part 1, Paul's Prison Epistles

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Paul’s Letter to the Philippians (Part 1)

     The apostle Paul seems to have maintained a close relationship with the saints at Philippi from the very beginning (Acts 16:11–20:6; Phil. 1:1-11, 19, 24-30; 4:14-18; cf. 2 Cor. 8:1-5; 9:1-4; 11:9). His correspondence to them is the most personal of any of his epistles addressed to a Christian community, serving as a thank-you letter for ongoing prayerful and financial support (Phil. 1:3-5, 19; 4:10-20). It also functions as a commendation of Timothy and Epaphroditus (2:19-30) and includes heart-felt pleas for unity in the midst of potential internal discord (1:27; 2:1-18; 3:15-17; 4:1-3), plus warnings of outside opposition and exhortations to faithfulness (1:28-30; 3:2-7, 18-19; 4:4-9).

Authorship and Audience

     There is no serious dispute about the Pauline authorship of Philippians, except among the more radical scholars. While Timothy is named with Paul in the opening (1:1), the prolific use of the “I” form of address throughout the epistle argues against any substantial contribution Timothy may have made to its composition, although he could have served as amanuensis.¹ Paul and Timothy are both described as douloi Christou Iēsou (“slaves of Christ Jesus”).² All Christians are to be Christ’s slaves (1 Cor. 7:22; Eph. 6:6; 2 Tim. 2:24), but other than Paul himself and Timothy (Rom. 1:1; Gal. 1:10; Tit. 1:1; Phil. 1:1), Epaphras is the only individual specifically identified as such in Paul’s writings (Col. 4:12).

     Philippi was the first city on European soil and in the Roman province of Macedonia to receive the gospel. Philippians is one of just four Pauline letters addressed to hagioi (“saints” or “sanctified ones”)³ and the only Pauline letter that includes in the opening address episkopois kai diakonois (“overseers and deacons”). The soundness, maturity and scriptural organization of this Christian community was no doubt aided by what appears to have been Luke’s extensive follow-up ministry among them (Acts 16:11–20:6).     

Provenance and Date of Writing

     Philippians was written while Paul was incarcerated (Phil. 1:7-16), likely during the two years he was confined to house arrest in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) between 60 and 62. When the letter was composed, Paul was anticipating potential release (Phil. 1:19-26; 2:24), using an even stronger and more extensive statement than that recorded in Philemon 22. This suggests that Philippians was written later than Colossians and Philemon, early in 62 close to the time of Paul’s liberation. The fact that Timothy is named in Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon but not in Ephesians may indicate that Ephesians was drafted after the other three “prison epistles” and after Timothy had been sent away to Philippi (Phil. 2:19-23).

The Christological Hymn

     Included in Philippians is a purported “hymn” (2:5-11)⁴ that some have argued might not have been originally composed by Paul. There were occasions when borrowed material was integrated into the apostle’s teachings (cf. Acts 17:28; 1 Cor. 15:33; Tit. 1:12), having been rooted in his memory and vocabulary and adapted for his own purpose. Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that Paul authored the “hymn” of 2:5-11 or received it by divine revelation. Irrespective of its original source, the text is inspired of God in its current setting, and the profound truth it conveys is unaffected.⁵

-- Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Of all the writings in the Pauline corpus, with the single exception of the brief letter to Philemon, the Philippians epistle has the fewest first person plurals – totaling only fifteen, in contrast to the 141 first person singulars.
     ² Scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ³ As in the case of Romans, Colossians, and possibly Ephesians, this may be indicative of more than one congregation in the city. The respective homes of Lydia and the jailer (Acts 16:14-15, 27-34) could have provided the nucleus of two separate house churches, but the scarcity of information precludes a definitive conclusion.

     ⁴ A “hymn” may be identified by contextual dislocations, different terminology and form, unusual vocabulary, and a rhythmic style (see R. P. Martin, “Hymns,” in DPL 419-23; P. T. O’Brien, Philippians 186-202). Other possible “hymns” in Paul’s writings include Rom. 1:3-4; 11:33-36; Eph. 1:3-14; 5:14; Col. 1:15-20; 1 Tim. 3:16; 2 Tim. 1:8-10; and Tit. 3:4-7. However, labeling Phil. 2:5-11 as a “hymn” is not unanimously conceded among New Testament scholars (cf. G. D. Fee, Philippians 40-43).

     ⁵ See Biblical Inspiration in Perspective.

Related Posts: Philippians Part 2, Paul's Prison Epistles

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