Jesus Christ is Superior to Aaron as God’s High Priest (4:14–10:18): Part 6 of 7

The Earthly Tabernacle

“Then indeed, even the first covenant had ordinances of divine service and the earthly sanctuary. For a tabernacle was prepared: the first part, in which was the lampstand, the table, and the showbread, which is called the sanctuary; and behind the second veil, the part of the tabernacle which is called the Holiest of All, which had the golden censer and the ark of the covenant overlaid on all sides with gold, in which were the golden pot that had the manna, Aaron’s rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant; and above it were the cherubim of glory overshadowing the mercy seat. Of these things we cannot now speak in detail” (Hebrews 9:1-5, NKJV).

The first covenant (cf. 8:6-13) “had” (imperfect tense – repeated, ongoing in the past)¹ certain ordinances. This statement immediately follows 8:13, further showing that at the time of writing the first covenant was officially (from God’s perspective) obsolete. The ordinances or regulations of “divine service” (NKJV) or “divine worship” (NASB) [latreía] were the Levitical rituals of the Jewish religion (cf. 5:1; 7:27; 8:3). The “earthly sanctuary” [te hágion kosmikón] is lit. “the worldly holy place” (material, physical), alluding to the ancient center of Jewish worship (the two-section tabernacle, precursor of the Jerusalem temple), as opposed to the heavenly sanctuary not made with human hands (cf. vv. 11, 24; 8:2).

The Tabernacle Furnishings

In the “sanctuary” (NKJV) or “holy place” (NASB), into which only the priests were allowed to enter (Ex. 25–26), were the lampstand, the table and the showbread. Behind the second veil (in contrast to the entrance veil) was the “Holiest of All” (NKJV) or “Holy of Holies” (NASB) [hágia hágiōn], into which only the high priest could enter once a year (vv. 3-5).

A “golden altar of incense” (ASV, NASB, RSV) or “the golden censer” (N/KJV, ERV) [thumiastērion] refers to “a place or vessel for the burning of incense,” whether a “censer” or “altar of incense” (BDAG 461). Although the altar of incense was before the veil and not behind it (Ex. 30:6), the present active participle éxousa (“having”) does not necessarily mean “inside” the holiest place, but in its significance more properly connected with it (cf. 1 Kings 6:22).²

The ark of the covenant was a chest made of acacia wood overlaid inside and out with gold (Ex. 25:10-22), which contained: (a) the golden [LXX] pot/jar of manna (Ex. 16:33) as a memorial of God’s providence; (b) Aaron’s rod that budded (Num. 17:1-10), a sign against rebellious complainers; and (c) the tablets of the covenant (Ex. 25:16, 21; 40:20; Deut. 10:2-5), representing God’s law.³ Above the ark were the figures of two cherubim of glory (Ex. 25:18-20) and the golden lid called the mercy seat (Ex. 25:17, 20-22), “concerning which things there is not [time or space] now to speak in detail” (v. 5; cf. 5:11).

The Tabernacle Ritual

“Now when these things had been thus prepared, the priests always went into the first part of the tabernacle, performing the services. But into the second part the high priest went alone once a year, not without blood, which he offered for himself and for the people’s sins committed in ignorance; the Holy Spirit indicating this, that the way into the Holiest of All was not yet made manifest while the first tabernacle was still standing. It was symbolic for the present time in which both gifts and sacrifices are offered which cannot make him who performed the service perfect in regard to the conscience—concerned only with foods and drinks, various washings, and fleshly ordinances imposed until the time of reformation” (Hebrews 9:6-10).

The priests serve in the outer part of the sanctuary (v. 6). The high priest officiates in the inner part, entering once a year (Day of Atonement) with animal blood to make appeasement for his own sins and the sins of the people (v. 7; cf. 5:3; Lev. 16:12-16). The Holy Spirit (the divine agent of revelation) has shown that while the first tabernacle stands (representing the Levitical ritual system), there is no direct access (for us) into the “holies” [hagíōn], i.e., the heavenly sanctuary in the presence of God (v. 8; cf. vv. 11, 24; 10:19-20; compare John 14:6).

The Levitical rituals were “symbolic for the present time” (vv. 9-10). They could not make perfect, justify, or save from sin (cf. 7:18-19; 8:7). They could not cleanse one’s conscience (cf. v. 14). They were merely shadows of better things to come (cf. 8:5; 10:1). The “fleshly ordinances imposed until the time of reformation” marks the fulfillment of the old-covenant system, having served its purpose while transitioning into the Christian Age (cf. Acts 13:19-26).

Christ’s Superior Ministry

“But Christ came as High Priest of the good things to come, with the greater and more perfect tabernacle not made with hands, that is, not of this creation. Not with the blood of goats and calves, but with His own blood He entered the Most Holy Place once for all, having obtained eternal redemption. For if the blood of bulls and goats and the ashes of a heifer, sprinkling the unclean, sanctifies for the purifying of the flesh, how much more shall the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered Himself without spot to God, cleanse your conscience from dead works to serve the living God?” (Hebrews 9:11-14).

What makes Christ’s high priesthood superior?

o   The heavenly tabernacle is not man-made (v. 11; cf. v. 24; 8:2).

o   He entered the Holy Place with his own blood, not of animals (vv. 12a, 13, 14)

o   He did this once-for-all-time (v. 12b; cf. v. 28; 7:27; 10:10).

o   The redemption is everlasting, not temporary (v. 12c; cf. v. 15; 5:9; 7:16, 25).

o   He offered himself without blemish to God (v. 14a; cf. 4:15).

o   One’s conscience can now be cleansed (v. 14b; cf. 10:22; 1 Pet. 3:21).

The New-Covenant Mediator’s Death was Necessary

“And for this reason He is the Mediator of the new covenant, by means of death, for the redemption of the transgressions under the first covenant, that those who are called may receive the promise of the eternal inheritance. For where there is a testament, there must also of necessity be the death of the testator. For a testament is in force after men are dead, since it has no power at all while the testator lives. Therefore not even the first covenant was dedicated without blood. For when Moses had spoken every precept to all the people according to the law, he took the blood of calves and goats, with water, scarlet wool, and hyssop, and sprinkled both the book itself and all the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant which God has commanded you.” Then likewise he sprinkled with blood both the tabernacle and all the vessels of the ministry. And according to the law almost all things are purified with blood, and without shedding of blood there is no remission” (Hebrews 9:15-22)

This covenant is “new” in contrast to the one that is now “old” or “obsolete” (v. 15a; cf. 7:22; 8:6, 13).⁴ The new covenant was established “by means of death” (v. 15b; cf. vv. 27-28; 2:9, 14; 7:27). Christ’s death makes provision “for the redemption of the transgressions under the first covenant” (v. 15c; cf. v. 26; Rom. 3:25-26; Gal. 4:4-5).

Those who are called (cf. 3:1; Phil. 3:14, 20; 2 Thess. 2:14) may receive the promise (cf. 1 John 2:25) of the eternal inheritance (v. 15d; cf. v. 12; 5:9; 7:25). This new covenant is the last will and testament of Jesus Christ, in force at his death (vv. 16-17). The first covenant was confirmed with blood (vv. 18-21), and “almost all things are purified with blood,” not counting grain and drink offerings. Christ had to suffer a violent death, because without the shedding of blood there is no remission/forgiveness (v. 22; cf. v. 28; 10:4).

Christ’s Better Sacrifice

“Therefore it was necessary that the copies of the things in the heavens should be purified with these, but the heavenly things themselves with better sacrifices than these. For Christ has not entered the holy places made with hands, which are copies of the true, but into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us; not that He should offer Himself often, as the high priest enters the Most Holy Place every year with blood of another—He then would have had to suffer often since the foundation of the world; but now, once at the end of the ages, He has appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of Himself. And as it is appointed for men to die once, but after this the judgment, so Christ was offered once to bear the sins of many. To those who eagerly wait for Him He will appear a second time, apart from sin, for salvation” (Hebrews 9:23-28)

“Therefore” [oun], i.e., since almost all things are ceremonially cleansed with blood (v. 22), “it was necessary that the copies of the things in the heavens should be purified with these [ritualistic sacrifices, vv. 18-21]” (v. 23a). The old covenant, with its accompanying regulations and rituals, was merely a foreshadowing [hupodeígmata – “examples”] of the heavenly things of Jesus Christ (cf. v. 24; 8:5; 10:1). Animal sacrifices were necessary to ceremonially cleanse the tabernacle and everything associated with it. But the heavenly things require better sacrifices (v. 23b), namely (a) Jesus himself (cf. vv. 26-28; 7:27; 10:10); and (b) our own personal sacrifices (cf. 13:15, 16; Luke 9:23-24; 14:26-33; Rom. 12:1).

Christ has entered heaven (vv. 24-28). As Christ is not a high priest of this world (cf. 7:13-14), he has not entered “holies” [hágia], i.e., “holy places” (NKJV) or “a holy place” (NASB) made with human hands (cf. v. 11; 8:2; Acts 7:48; 17:24) (v. 24). These man-made structures and furnishings are merely copies/figures [antítupa] of the true (cf. v. 23; 8:4). Christ has entered “heaven itself” (cf. 1:3, 13; 4:14; 8:1; 12:2; 1 Pet. 3:22), now to appear in the presence of God for us (cf. 7:25; Rom. 8:34; 1 John 2:1).

The old system required continual sacrifices involving the blood of another (vv. 25-28; cf. v. 7; 7:27; 8:3; 10:1). Jesus offered himself once-for-all time (vv. 26, 28; cf. 7:27, 28). The implication of v. 26 is that Christ’s sacrifice reaches back to deal with the sins of past generations (cf. v. 15). His mission at “the end/consummation/completion of the ages” marks the final period of Bible history (cf. 1:2; 1 Pet. 1:20; 3:3), to “put away sin … to bear the sins of many” (vv. 26, 28; cf. v. 12-14, 22; 8:12; 10:4; Matt. 20:28; 26:28; John 1:29; 2 Cor. 5:21). The “many” (large, indefinite number) refers to all sinners, seeing that Christ died for everyone (2:9), but those whose sins are forgiven are “all who obey Him” (5:8-9).

It is appointed for human beings to physically die just once (cf. Gen. 3:19; Rom. 5:12), and after this is the judgment (v. 27; cf. Acts 17:30-31; 2 Cor. 5:10): two divinely-ordained appointments we must all keep. For those who eagerly wait for him (v. 28b; cf. Matt. 24:42, 44; 1 Thess. 5:1-5; 2 Pet. 3:11-12), Jesus will appear a second time (cf. John 14:1-6; Acts 1:11; 1 Thess. 4:13-18), apart from sin (cf. 4:15; 2 Cor. 5:21; 1 Pet. 2:22; 1 John 3:5), for the completion of eternal salvation (cf. v. 12, 15; 2:3; 5:9).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The verb eiche (“it had”), the imperfect third person singular form of échō, expresses ongoing action of the past.

     ² “The writer of Hebrews most probably is not referring to a ‘golden censer.’ Nowhere in the Old Testament is a censer mentioned as part of the furniture of the Holy of Holies. Further, it is not likely that the reference is to Aaron’s censer which was used on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:12-13). This censer was of no special importance; and even if it had been, it could not have been kept in the Holy of Holies, for the high priest had to use it to carry coals from the altar as he entered the Holy of Holies” (N. Lightfoot, Jesus Christ Today 178). Contra R. Milligan, Hebrews 245-46.

     ³ The ark was captured by the Philistines (1 Sam. 4:1-11), and later in the days of Solomon it only contained the two stone tablets (1 Kings 8:9).

     ⁴ The first covenant is equivalent to the law (8:4-9; 9:18-22; 10:1, 8), viz. the law of Moses (10:28; cf. 8:5; 9:19).

Related Posts: Heb 8:1-13, Heb 10:1-18

 

Image credit: https://www.josh.org/resurrection-crucifixion-details/ 

The Undeniable and Undeserved Love of God

“For while we were still weak, at the right time Christ died for the ungodly. For one will scarcely die for a righteous person—though perhaps for a good person one would dare even to die—but God shows his love for us in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us. Since, therefore, we have now been justified by his blood, much more shall we be saved by him from the wrath [of God]. For if while we were enemies we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son, much more, now that we are reconciled, shall we be saved by his life. More than that, we also rejoice in God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have now received reconciliation” (Rom. 5:6-11, ESV).

Our Woeful Predicament

Paul summarizes his opening indictment of the human condition (1:18-32), depicted here as “weak,” the opposite of a strong Abraham-like faith (4:19) and characteristic of the deficiency of misguided law observance (8:3). The adj. “ungodly” describes the irreligious state apart from God and apart from his gracious justification (4:5). The ones contrasted with “righteous” and “good” persons are “sinners” (cf. v. 19; 3:7; 7:13),¹ guilty of “sin” (cf. v. 12) and subject to divine “wrath” (cf. 1:18; 2:5, 8; 3:5; 4:15; 9:22; 12:19); and “enemies” (cf. 11:28; 12:20), the opposite of those having “peace with God” (5:1).

Proof of God’s Love

Despite the woeful predicament of mankind, what God has done through Christ is “much more” [πολλῷ μᾶλλον], a major point of emphasis in this chapter (vv. 9, 10, 15, 17). The love of God (vv. 5, 8) “for [εἰς–‘unto’] us” is undeterred, and not just “his love” (ESV) but τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην, emphatically “the of himself love” or “his own love,” initiated within his very nature rather than from external prompting. God “shows” or “demonstrates” [συνίστησιν] (the first word of the sentence for emphasis!) his own love in that “Christ died for [ὑπέρ–‘on behalf of’] us,”² accomplished “at the right time” (cf. 3:26; Gal. 4:4).³

The law [of Moses] had operated for centuries and had served to expose the weakness and inability of man to measure up to the divine standard of righteousness. No further testing was needed. It was the right time…. It was for ‘sinners’ Christ died, for men who were neither ‘righteous’ nor ‘good.’ The contrast is between the tremendous worth of the life laid down and the unworthiness of those who stand to benefit from it. Back of the death of Christ for sinners is the love of God …⁴ 

Justified, Saved, Reconciled

To be “justified” by God is to be “reconciled” to God, which is to be “saved” from the wrath of God, accomplished because of the love of God shown through the atoning death of the Son of God: “Christ died … Christ died … by his blood … by him … by the death … by his life … through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom …”

To “be reconciled” and to receive “reconciliation” (cf. 11:15) is, according to Paul, a state of affairs “brought about by God alone” (BAGD 414), albeit with conditions to be met by willing recipients (cf. 2 Cor. 5:18-20). We therefore “rejoice”—presently and continuously—because God’s gift of reconciliation through Christ “is ground enough for ceaseless exultation.”⁵

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ From the verbal ἁμαρτάνω (to “sin” or “miss the mark”), vv. 12, 14, 16; 2:12; 3:23; 6:15; and the noun ἁμαρτία (“sin” or “sinful deed”), vv. 12, 13, 20, 21; 3:9, 20; 4:7, 8; 6:1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23; 7:5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 17, 20, 23, 25; 8:2, 3, 10; 11:27; 14:23. Note the heavy concentration (thirty-one explicit references!) in chaps. 6–7.

     ² To die ὑπέρ is to die “on behalf of,” vv. 6, 7, 8; 8:32, 34; 14:15; 1 Cor. 11:24; 15:3; 2 Cor. 5:14-15, 21; Gal. 1:4; 2:20; 3:13; Eph. 5:2, 25; 1 Thess. 5:10; 1 Tim. 2:6; Tit. 2:14; cf. Mark 14:24; Luke 22:19-20; John 6:51; 10:11, 15; 11:50-52; 15:13; 18:14; 1 Cor. 1:13; Heb. 2:9; 6:20; 10:12; 1 Pet. 2:21; 3:18; 1 John 3:16.

     ³ Cf. also 2 Cor. 6:2; Eph. 1:10; 1 Tim 2:6; Tit. 1:3.

     ⁴ E. F. Harrison, “Romans,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Vol 10. Eds. Frank E. Gaebelein and J. D. Douglas (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976): 58-59.

     ⁵ C. E. B. Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. ICC. 2 vols (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1980): 1:268-69. 

Related Posts: Rejoice in Sufferings (Rom 5:3-5), Broad Reach of Justification (Rom 5:12-21): Part 1, Baptism (Rom 6:1-4) 

Related articles: Tracy Watts, Daniel's Prayer

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The Brutal Suffering and Death of Jesus the Christ (Part 2 of 2)

The Scourging 

Pilate had Jesus severely whipped.¹ Matthew and Mark employ the verbal φραγελλόω (to “flagellate,” “scourge”), whereas John uses μαστιγόω (to “flog,” or “beat with lashing [μάστιξ]”²), according to what Jesus himself had predicted.³ The Gospel writers are brief and pointed, without further description. The original reading audiences would have been all too familiar with the brutality of the Romans and already knew the horrific details. For modern readers, however, it is helpful to hear the words in the context of the first-century Roman world and appreciate the impact these simple statements would almost certainly have had.

The Romans used the Latin term verberatio for this savage beating, brutal enough to cause death in many cases (see Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 4.15). The instrument was a flagellum or flagrum, a short whip with three or more single or braided leather strands of varying lengths, with iron balls or pieces of sharp bone to lacerate. The victim was stripped of his clothing, with his hands bound to an upright post. “The back, buttocks, and legs were flogged either by two soldiers (lictors) or by one who alternated positions. The severity of the scourging depended on the disposition of the lictors and was intended to weaken the victim to a state just short of collapse or death.”⁴

Medically, as the victim was beaten, “the iron balls would cause deep contusions,” and the leather straps and sharp bones “would cut into the skin and subcutaneous tissues.” As the beating continued, “the lacerations would tear into the underlying skeletal muscles and produce quivering ribbons of bleeding flesh. Pain and blood loss generally set the stage for circulatory shock. The extent of blood loss may very well have determined how long the victim would survive on the cross.”⁵

Further Torture, Humiliation, and Death

Afterwards the soldiers stripped Jesus (again), put a twisted crown of thorns on his head and mocked him, spat on him, struck him on the head with a reed, and beat him with their hands.⁶ Jesus was then forced to carry the implement upon which he would be executed (John 19:17), probably the 75-125 lb. (35-60 kg) crossbeam (patibulum).⁷ Apparently weakened by extreme blood loss and fatigue, someone else (Simon of Cyrene) was conscripted to take it the rest of the way.⁸ “The physical and mental abuse meted out by the Jews and the Romans, as well as the lack of food, water, and sleep, also contributed to his generally weakened state. Therefore, even before the actual crucifixion, Jesus’ physical condition was at least serious and possibly critical.”⁹

Jesus was then crucified.¹⁰ “Death by crucifixion was one of the cruelest forms of execution humanity has ever devised.”¹¹  Tapered iron spikes of approximately 7 inches (17-18 cm)¹² were driven through the victim’s “hands” [χεῖρας] and “feet” [πόδας],¹³ affixing him to the wooden cross [σταυρός] and serving the twofold purpose of immobilization and torture – no defense against aggressive insects and other scavengers. 

It is commonly believed the spikes would have been driven through the wrists rather than the palms, since the weight of the body would cause the nails to rip through the flesh of the hands. While the term χείρ could be used for any part of the hand, incl. a “finger” (Luke 15:22) and in the plural “wrists” (Acts 12:7),¹⁴ it is not a forgone conclusion that the spikes would not and could not have been driven through the palms. Ropes were often used to hold the limbs in place, and the weight of the body would have put more pressure on the nailed feet than the hands. The biblical record employs the same word for Jesus’ crucified “hands” (Luke 24:39, 40; John 20:20, 25, 27) that consistently applies elsewhere specifically to his hands rather than his wrists.¹⁵

The bitter, perfumed wine [οἶνος] and the vinegar [ὄξος] offered to Jesus at the cross¹⁶ were not acts of compassion but further attempts to taunt him and to increase his suffering.¹⁷ The victim of a Roman crucifixion would die of muscle spasms, loss of bodily fluids, organ failure, and/or asphyxia, taking between three hours to four days to expire.¹⁸

To hasten the process, the legs would be broken below the knees to prevent the victim from pushing up on his feet to facilitate breathing (John 19:31-32). Jesus died after about six hours of suffering on the cross (Mark 15:25, 33-37, 42) without his legs being broken, and his death was confirmed by a centurion (Mark 15:39, 44-45) and a Roman soldier’s spear thrust into his side (John 19:33-37).¹⁹

Is there such a thing as a person who would actually prefer wasting away in pain on a cross—dying limb by limb one drop of blood at a time—rather than dying quickly? Would any human being willingly choose to be fastened to that cursed tree, especially after the beating that left him deathly weak, deformed, swelling with vicious welts on shoulders and chest, and struggling to draw every last, agonizing breath? Anyone facing such a death would plead to die rather than mount the cross. 

--Seneca the Younger (ca. 4 BC–AD 65), Epistulae morales 101.14.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1. It is interesting that Luke, the compassionate medical-healer, does not mention this in the trial account other than the Lord’s earlier prophetic statement (Luke 18:33). See K. L. Moore, "What Do We Know About Luke? (Part 2)," Moore Perspective (2 March 2022), <Link>.

     ² Cf. Acts 22:24; Heb. 11:36.

     ³ Matt. 20:19; Mark 10:34; Luke 18:33; cp. also Matt. 10:17; 23:34.

     ⁴ W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1457.

     ⁵ Ibid. See also D. McClister, “The Scourging of Jesus,” Truth Magazine 44:1 (Jan. 2000): 11-12.

     ⁶ Matt. 27:27-30; Mark 15:16-20; John 19:1-5.

     ⁷ An entire Roman cross could weigh over 135 kg (300 lb.), so it was the crossbeam, weighing approximately 35-60 kg (75-125 lb.), that was typically carried. See Plutarch, De sera 554; Titus Maccius Plautus, Miles gloriosus 358-360; Mostellaria 56-57; cf. Sverre Bøe, Cross-Bearing in Luke WUNT 278 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010): 63-71.

     ⁸ Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26. See K. L. Moore, “The Legacy of Simon the Cyrenian,” Moore Perspective (27 May 2020), <Link>.

     ⁹ W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1458.

     ¹⁰ Matt. 27:33-50; Mark 15:22-39; Luke 23:32-49; John 19:18-30; cf. also Matt. 20:19; 23:34; 26:2; 27:22-44; 28:5; Mark 15:13-32; 16:6; Luke 23:21, 23, 33; 24:7, 20; Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10.

     ¹¹ C. L. Blomberg, op cit. 401.

     ¹² The evidence comes from an ossuary discovered in a Jerusalem tomb in 1968, containing the remains of a first-century crucified man with the spike still lodged in his heel bones. See Vassilios Tzaferis, “Crucifixion—The Archaeological Evidence,” Biblical Archaeology Review 11:1 (Jan./Feb. 1985), <Web>. The skeleton of another crucified man was discovered in 2017 in the village of Fenstanton in Cambridgeshire, England, dating back to the second–fourth centuries, with the spike also lodged in the heel bone. See Livia Gershon, “Rare Physical Evidence of Roman Crucifixion,” Smithsonian Magazine (10 Dec. 2021), <Web>.  

     ¹³ Luke 24:39, 40; John 20:20, 25, 27.

     ¹⁴ Cp. Gen. 24:22; 38:28, 30; Jer. 40:4; cf. John 11:44.

     ¹⁵ Matt. 8:3; 9:18; 14:31; 19:13, 15; Mark 1:41; 5:23; 6:2, 5; 7:32; 8:23, 25; 10:16; Luke 4:40; 5:13; 13:13; 24:50. The evidence of the celebrated Shroud of Turin is disputable. Moreover, the Romans did not practice a uniform method of securing victims to the instruments of death of various shapes and positions. 

     ¹⁶ Matt. 27:34, 48; Mark 15:23, 36; Luke 23:36; John 19:29-30.

     ¹⁷ These were not thirst quenchers (note John 19:28) but would have increased dehydration (C. L. Blomberg, op cit. 402, 404).

     ¹⁸ F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers, “The history and pathology of crucifixion,” SAMJ 93:12 (2003): 938-41.

     ¹⁹ “The Roman guard would not leave the victim until they were sure of his death …. Since no one was intended to survive crucifixion, the body was not released to the family until the soldiers were sure that the victim was dead. By custom, one of the Roman guards would pierce the body with a sword or lance. Traditionally, this had been considered a spear wound to the heart through the right side of the chest—a fatal wound …” (W. D. Edwards, et al., op cit. 1459-60). Also present at the cross to witness Jesus’ death was his mother and her sister, John and his mother (Salome?), Mary Magdalene, Mary the wife of Cleopas and mother of James the Less and Jose[s/ph], additional women, and perhaps other acquaintances (Matt. 27:55-56; Mark 15:40; Luke 23:49; John 19:25-26).

Related Posts: Brutal Suffering & Death of Jesus (Part 1), The Christianization of a Pagan Symbol, Chronological Confusion

 

Image credit: https://www.josh.org/resurrection-crucifixion-details/

The Brutal Suffering and Death of Jesus the Christ (Part 1 of 2)

The Historicity of the Crucifixion

Certain aspects of the life of Jesus, particularly his death by crucifixion, “rank so high on the ‘almost impossible to doubt or deny’ scale of historical facts,” they “command almost universal consent.”¹ Nevertheless, not everyone is convinced.

 

Anti-Christian Skepticism

 

Mainstream Muslims, while believing Jesus is a real historical figure, typically reject the Gospel accounts of his death.² Other skeptics not only deny his crucifixion and death but his very existence. Sam Woolfe, a freelance writer and blogger based in London, is among the plethoric non-critical thinkers claiming the biblical account of Jesus’ life is not original but represents “the archetypal story of the archetypal hero,” with “similarities between Jesus and other gods, suggesting that the authors of the Bible borrowed myths from other religions,” particularly the “dying-and-returning-god” pattern of various legends, concluding this “suggests that there never was a real, historical Jesus.”³

 

The idea of an ancient “dying-and-returning god” archetype comes from Sir James George Frazer’s 1890 The Golden Bough: a Study in Comparative Religion. However, subsequent scholarship has proven the claim to be farcical. These so-called dying (or disappearing) and returning gods of ancient mythology are actually accounts of deities that died and did not return, or deities that returned but had not died. “The category of dying and rising gods, once a major topic of scholarly investigation, must now be understood to have been largely a misnomer based on imaginative reconstructions and exceedingly late or highly ambiguous texts.”⁴

 

Antemortem Suffering of Jesus

 

According to Luke the physician, textual variation notwithstanding,⁵ prior to Jesus’ arrest and crucifixion he was in “agony” [ἀγωνίᾳ] as he earnestly prayed, “and his sweat became like great drops of blood falling down upon the ground” (Luke 22:44). Medically, hematidrosis (bloody sweat), albeit rare, is the result of capillaries hemorrhaging into the sweat glands due to extreme mental anguish.⁶ The other Synoptics describe his volatile mental and emotional state as intense “grieving” [λυπέω], “distressing” [ἀδημονέω], “very sorrowful” [περίλυπος], and “sorely dismayed” [ἐκθαμβέομαι], “even to death” (Matt. 26:37-38; Mark 14:33-34). 

 

Jesus was arrested by an armed mob (sent and escorted by the chief priests, scribes [Pharisees], captains of the temple, and elders), carrying lanterns, torches, and “weapons,” viz. “swords and clubs.”⁷ He was treated as a λῃστής, a violent criminal like a bandit or robber or insurrectionist.⁸ All the disciples “left him and fled,” just as Jesus and the prophetic scriptures had foretold.⁹

 

He was bound and led to the former high priest Annas, where he was interrogated and slapped.¹⁰ Next he was taken to the current high priest Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin and accused of blasphemy (subject to the death penalty under Jewish law),¹¹ where they spat in his face, struck him with the fist [κολαφίζω], slapped¹² him in the face, blindfolded and beat him.¹³ He was then led bound to the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate¹⁴ and briefly transferred to the tetrarch Herod Antipas, where he was treated with contempt and mocked before being taken back to Pilate.¹⁵ 

 

Jesus was accused of sedition, treason, and insurrection, including the claim of being “king of the Jews.”¹⁶ These were very serious charges, and if proven, subject to the death penalty under Roman law. Pilate then had Jesus severely whipped.¹⁷ To be continued in the Next Post.

 

--Kevin L. Moore

 

Endnotes:

     ¹ J. G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making, Vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2019): 339; cf. also J. D. Crossan and R. G. Watts, Who Is Jesus? (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1996): 96; B. D. Ehrman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (Oxford: University Press, 1999): 101. Ehrman observes, “The crucifixion by the Romans is one of the most secure facts we have about his life” (“Why Was Jesus Crucified?” The Bart Ehrman Blog [18 Oct. 2019], <Web>).

     ² Quran 4:157-58, “In fact, they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him …”

     ³ “How the Bible Borrowed from Other Stories,” Sam Woolfe (25 April 2013), <Web>. 

     ⁴ J. Z. Smith, “Dying and Rising Gods,” in The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade (London: Macmillan, 1987): 4:521-27. See also P. R. Eddy and G. A. Boyd, The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003); B. D. Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth (NY: HarperCollins, 2012); T. N. D. Mettinger, “The ‘Dying and Rising God’: A Survey of Research from Frazer to the Present Day,” in David and Zion: Biblical Studies in Honor of J. J. M. Roberts,” eds. B. F. Bernard and K. L. Roberts (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2004): 373-86.

     ⁵ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation. While undisputed in the Byzantine Majority Text, the editors of UBS⁵ and NA²⁸ have enclosed Luke 22:43-44 in double square brackets, considering the verses to have been absent from the original and added in the early stages of transmission. On the diverse manuscript evidence, see P. W. Comfort, A Commentary on the Text and Manuscripts of the NT 235-36; B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek NT (2nd ed.) 151. Unlike other textual variants, this passage does not depend on parallel accounts or provide an explanation to the narrative. As a physician Luke would surely have an interest in bloody sweat, and angelic activity is thematic in his writings (Luke 1:11-19, 26-38; 2:9-13, 15, 21;  4:10; 9:26; 12:8-9; 15:10; 16:22; 20:36; [22:43]; 24:23; Acts 5:19; 6:15; 7:30, 35, 38, 53; 8:26; 10:3, 7, 22; 11:13; 12:7-11, 15, 23; 23:8-9; 27:23).

     ⁶ W. D. Edwards, W. J. Gabel, F. E. Hosmer, “On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ,” JAMA 255:11 (21 March 1986): 1456.

     ⁷ Matt. 26:47-55; Mark 14:43-48; Luke 22:47-52; John 18:1-12.

     ⁸ Matt. 26:55; Mark 14:48; Luke 22:52; cf. Matt. 27:38; Mark 15:27; Luke 23:32-39; John 18:40; 19:18. See also Luke 10:30, 36; 2 Cor. 11:26. Josephus employs the term with reference to revolutionaries (War 2.13.5-6; Ant. 14.9.2); cf. Mark 15:7; Luke 23:25.

     ⁹ Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:27, 49-50.

     ¹⁰ Luke 22:54a; John 18:13, 19-23.

     ¹¹ Matt. 26:57-65; Mark 14:53-64; Luke 22:54, 66-71; John 18:24; cf. Lev. 24:13-16.

     ¹² ASV, CSB, ESV, NASB, NIV, N/KJV; cf. Matt. 5:39. The verbal ῥαπίζω can also mean to “strike with a rod.”

     ¹³ Matt. 26:67; Mark 14:65; Luke 22:63-65.

     ¹⁴ Matt. 27:2, 11-14; Mark 15:1-5; Luke 23:1-5; John 18:28.

     ¹⁵ Luke 23:6-25.

     ¹⁶ Matt. 27:11; Mark 15:2; Luke 23:2, 3, 5, 14; John 18:33; 19:12-15.

     ¹⁷ Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1.

Related Posts: Brutal Suffering and Death of Jesus Part 2, Were Jesus Stories Copied from Ancient Myths?

 

Image credit: https://hope1032.com.au/stories/faith/2019/rediscovering-jesus-part-16-two-men-on-trial/

Death By Suspension in the Bible

Hanging by the neck as a mode of execution can be traced as far back as Homer’s 8th-century-BC epic poem the Odyssey (Book 22), but not commonplace until the Middle Ages. In the biblical record this method of ending one’s life was more likely to be suicide (2 Sam. 17:23; Matt. 27:5), while executions involving bodily suspension were typically impalement or crucifixion. 

According to Jewish law, if a man is hanged on a tree (whether affixed by ropes or nails?) after his execution (by whatever means), his body was not to be left hanging overnight (Deut. 21:22-23). This seems to address the humiliation or desecration of a corpse rather than the mode of execution (cf. Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12). 

As for the ancient Egyptians, Genesis 40:19 apparently refers to exposing the dead body on a tree after beheading. The hangings in the book of Esther (2:23; 5:14; 7:9, 10; 9:13-14) probably refer to the Persian practice of impaling or crucifying. The Hebrew עֵץ [ets], rendered “gallows” (CSB, ESV, N/ASV, N/KJV, N/RSV) or “pole” (NIV), simply means “tree” or “wood.”

When Jesus was hanged on a tree (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Gal. 3:13; 1 Pet. 2:24), he was in fact crucified (Matt. 20:19; 23:34; 26:2; 27:22-44; 28:5; Mark 15:13-32; 16:6; Luke 23:21, 23, 33; 24:7, 20; John 19:6-41; Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10). Although the particular shape of the apparatus upon which he died is not specified in scripture (the English word “cross” is rendered from the less descriptive Greek term staurós), early ecclesiastical writers unanimously describe it as an upright post with a crossbeam (e.g. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 15; cf. Epistle of Barnabas 9.7-8). 

--Kevin L. Moore

Related Posts: The Christianization of a Pagan Symbol 

 

Image credit: https://depositphotos.com/stock-photos/noose.html

The Christianization of a Pagan Symbol

Long before it became a gold-plated religious ornament, the cross was an abhorrent symbol of brutality and death. Especially during the Roman Empire’s oppressive regime, one of the harshest insults a person could hurl at another was, “Be fixed to a cross!”¹

Some form of punitive suspension can be traced as far back as the 6th-century BC in Carthage, Macedonia, and Persia. While the Romans may have borrowed this mode of execution from the Carthaginians, they perfected it as a means of humiliation and torture intended as a deterrent to insurrection. They reportedly crucified tens of thousands of people, aiming to inflict maximum suffering through a slow, agonizing death.²

Mainly intended for the lower classes, rebellious slaves, tomb defilers, and criminals, the Romans were much less concerned about the shape of the torture device as many are today. In fact, Seneca the Younger (ca. 4 BC–AD 65) notes at least three different forms and positions, although suspension with outstretched arms is often assumed.³ Early patristic authors, writing about the apparatus upon which Jesus died, unanimously describe it as having a crossbeam (e.g. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 15; cf. Epistle of Barnabas 9.7-8). 

Conventional Perception Before Christ’s Death

Early in his ministry Jesus advised his immediate disciples: “And he who is not taking his cross and following after me is not worthy of me” (Matt. 10:38).⁴ This was before he had revealed that he would be “killed” (Matt. 16:21), much less “crucified” (Matt. 20:19; 26:2), so what would these words have meant to those to whom he spoke? What connotation did the “cross” carry at this time? On other occasions, employing comparable terminology presumably familiar to his listening audience,⁵ with what frame of reference were they to interpret such a disturbing admonition? 

First-century Palestinian Jews were very much aware of the cross as an instrument of suffering and death. As far back as the second century BC, Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes crucified Jews resisting his oppressive decrees (Josephus, Ant. 12.5.4). The Romans, who occupied the Jewish homeland throughout Jesus’ entire earthly life, were notorious for this brutal form of capital punishment. The imagery of a “cross” had absolutely no religious significance at the time, particularly in a pre-Christian Jewish context.

When discussing crucifixion, the Greek noun staurós (rendered “cross” in most English versions) is the term attributed to Jesus in the Synoptics, and employed in all four Gospels to describe the torturous gibbet upon which he died. Josephus also reported that Pilate condemned Jesus to a staurós (Ant. 18.3.3). The corresponding verbal is stauróō (“crucify”), and sometimes xúlon (“tree”) is used as a metonymy.⁶ All of these usages are clearly associated with shame, agony, and death.

A Change in Perspective

The killing of Jesus and the particular means of his execution were not unexpected,⁷ which the Lord willingly endured for the redemption of broken humanity.⁸ In the context of the first-century Mediterranean world, with the prevailing “honor vs. shame” mentality, the ignominy of crucifixion rendered the message of the cross offensive and foolish.⁹ Nevertheless, by the second century the cross was recognized as a uniquely Christian symbol.¹⁰ Having been commissioned to proclaim “good news” to the world, Christ’s atoning death by way of crucifixion was at the heart of the message his followers preached.¹¹

From the heavenly perspective the cross was no longer a sign of defeat but a necessary prelude to the Lord’s victorious resurrection. It was the instrument of God’s grace, the devil’s demise, and deliverance from the shackles of sin.¹² The cross was the means through which the new covenant of Jesus Christ was inaugurated (Col. 2:14; Heb. 9:15), making available forgiveness (Eph. 1:7; Col. 1:14), reconciliation (Rom. 5:6-11), and peace (Eph. 2:16; Col. 1:20).

Jerry Sumney comments: “Crucifixion almost universally signaled defeat and humiliation. But the early church radically reinterpreted it so that it came to symbolize the way God relates to the world …. In the cross, thus, God not only forgives sins but also defeats all forces of evil that oppose God by trying to separate God from God’s people.”¹³

Conclusion

The question is often asked, “Why does God allow human suffering?” While philosophers and theologians have struggled over the centuries to come up with a reasonable answer, perhaps we need to look no further than the cross. This is where Almighty God joins in our suffering to bring light out of darkness, life out of death, and hope out of despair. Maybe we should be asking, how did a barbaric Roman torture device become the most recognizable symbol of the Christian faith? 

Apparently what something meant in the distant past does not dictate what it currently means (see addendum below). As Peter Wehner observes, “the crucifixion — an emblem of agony and one of the cruelest methods of execution ever practiced — became a historical pivot point and eventually the most compelling symbol of the most popular faith on earth.”¹⁴

The iconography of the cross is not enhanced by precious metals and jewels and elaborate ornamentation. It is of far greater value. “But may it never be that I should boast, except in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, through which the world has been crucified to me and I to the world” (Gal. 6:14).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Pompeii Graffito, CIL IV, 2082: graffiti, dated between the first century BC and AD 79, discovered at Pompeii, wherein “there is clearly an invective here that derisively invokes the cross upon the reader” (David W. Chapman and Eckhard J. Schnabel, The Trial and Crucifixion of Jesus: Texts and Commentary, WUNT 344 [Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2015]: 753).

     ² “Is there such a thing as a person who would actually prefer wasting away in pain on a cross—dying limb by limb one drop of blood at a time—rather than dying quickly? Would any human being willingly choose to be fastened to that cursed tree, especially after the beating that left him deathly weak, deformed, swelling with vicious welts on shoulders and chest, and struggling to draw every last, agonizing breath? Anyone facing such a death would plead to die rather than mount the cross” (Seneca the Younger, Epistulae morales 101.14).

     ³ Seneca the Younger, Ad Marciam De consolatione 20.3; David W. Chapman, “Perceptions of Crucifixion: Evidence from Ancient Inscriptions and Graffiti,” ETS Annual Meeting, 21 Nov. 2019. In Classical Greek (until the early 4th century BC), the term staurós referred to an upright stake for impaling (H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, Greek-English Lexicon 595), but in Koinē Greek it denoted the wooden object upon which the Romans executed criminals. There are basically four popular representations of the cross: the traditional crux immissa (Latin cross), with a longer base (✝); the crux quadrata (Greek cross), with four equal appendages (+); the crux commissa, the shape of the Greek letter tau (T); the crux decussata, in the form of the Roman numeral ten (X). Seeing that there is no clear description in the NT of the particular shape of the gibbet upon which Jesus was executed, idolizing it as an iconographic ornament was apparently not the Lord’s intent.

     ⁴ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ⁵ Luke 9:23 (par. Matt. 16:24/Mark 8:34); Luke 14:27; also Mark 10:21 (N/KJV). The metaphor draws meaning from the practice of the condemned forced to carry the implement upon which he would die to the place of execution (Plutarch, De sera 554; Titus Maccius Plautus, Miles gloriosus 358-360; Mostellaria 56-57). Cf. Sverre Bøe, Cross-Bearing in Luke WUNT 278 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010): 63-71. Seeing that an entire Roman cross could weigh over 135 kg (300 lb.), it was the crossbeam, weighing approximately 35-60 kg (75-125 lb.), that was typically carried. 

     ⁶ The noun staurós is translated from Jesus’ Aramaic speech (Matt. 10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; Luke 9:23), and used in descriptions of his execution (Matt. 27:32, 40, 42; Mark 15:21, 30, 32; Luke 14:27; 23:26; John 19:17-31). The verbal stauróō is employed congruently (Matt. 20:19; 23:34; 26:2; 27:22-44; 28:5; Mark 15:13-32; 16:6; Luke 23:21, 23, 33; 24:7, 20; John 19:6-41; Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10), along with xúlon as a metonymy (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Gal. 3:13; 1 Pet. 2:24).

     ⁷ Psa. 22:16; Isa. 53:8-9; Matt. 20:19; 26:2; Acts 2:23. See also Matt. 16:21; 17:12, 22-23; 20:18-19; 21:37-39; 26:2; John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32-33; Acts 3:18; 4:27-28; et al.

     ⁸ Mark 10:45; 1 Cor. 1:13; Gal. 1:4; 2:20; Eph. 5:25; 1 Tim. 2:6; Tit. 2:14; Heb. 12:2; 1 Pet. 2:24.

     ⁹ 1 Cor. 1:18-29; Gal. 3:13; 5:11; 6:12; Phil. 2:18; Heb. 6:6. See Sociocultural Context (Part 2): Honor and Shame.

     ¹⁰ Justin Martyr, Apologia 1.5-60 and Dialogue with Trypho 85-97; Epistle of Barnabas 11-12; Tertullian, Apologia 12, 17; Apostolic Constitutions 3.17.

     ¹¹ Acts 2:23, 36; 4:10; 1 Cor. 1:17; 2:2; 15:1-4; Gal. 3:1.

     ¹² Heb. 2:9-17; 12:2; see also 2 Cor. 13:4; Phil. 2:8-9.

     ¹³ Jerry L. Sumney, Colossians: A Commentary (Louisville, London: Westminster John Knox, 2003): 146.

     ¹⁴ Peter Wehner, “What It Means to Worship a Man Crucified as a Criminal: A God who allows suffering is a mystery, but so is a God who suffered,” New York Times (19 April 2019), <Link>.

Addendum:

What something meant in the past does not necessarily determine what it currently means. Consider, for example, the statement: “Sunday is a special day of worship.” In the context of ancient Greco-Roman astrology, this would have reference to the day on which the sun (or sun god) is venerated. However, the word “Sunday” no longer carries this meaning in a modern-day westernized culture. The same is true for how the other days of the week are designated: Monday (day of the Moon), Tuesday (day of the Norse god Tiw), Wednesday (day of the Anglo-Saxon god Woden), Thursday (day of the Norse god Thor), Friday (day of Freya, the Norse queen of the gods), and Saturday (day of Saturn). Using these common monikers, irrespective of etymology, is in no way an endorsement of polytheism.  

Initially circumcision signified a covenantal relationship with God (Gen. 17:10-11), but it has not borne this significance since the third decade of the first century AD (Gal. 5:6), orthodox Judaism notwithstanding. The swastika (卐) was originally a Buddhist symbol of luck and prosperity, but since the early twentieth century, thanks to German Nazism, it has conveyed a very different meaning.

Christmas, as a celebration of Christ’s birth, was not observed for the first three centuries of the Christian era. Many, therefore, do not regard it as a religious holy day in view of its initial connection to the pagan celebration of birthdays, the date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar (Dec. 25th), the innovation of Roman Catholic traditions (“Christ’s mass”), and the absence of biblical authorization. Regardless of what the festival and any of its symbolism may have meant in the past, both Christians and non-Christians can celebrate Christmas as a secular holiday for family gatherings and gift-giving, without any inherent pagan or religious connotations. In this sense, Christ cannot be removed from Christmas any more than he can be removed from Christopher Columbus Day. A man-made holiday is not necessary to remember Christ on any day of the year.

The same can be said about any number of other festivities (Easter, birthdays, Halloween, etc.), symbols, flags, and customs. What something means is not necessarily dictated by what it meant. Moreover, what something represents to me may not be what it conveys to you. Is it that difficult to be neither hyper-sensitive, hyper-offensive, nor hyper-critical? Can we not extend to each other empathy, understanding, and grace?

Related Posts: K. L. Moore, “Cross-bearing: the Cost of Discipleship,” Moore Perspective (12 August 2012), <Link>.

Related articles: Wes McAdams, “Is it Wrong?” Radically Christian (24 April 2019), <Link>; Neal Pollard, “A Passage I’ve Neglected,” PreacherPollard (17 Dec. 2019), <Link>, Jovan Payes, "Symbols of Christianity," Biblical Christianity (16 Oct. 2023), <Link>.

Image credit: Nicholas Grundy Photography, “Celtic Cross,” Inis Mor, Aran Islands, <https://www.facebook.com/NicholasGrundyPhotography/photos/a.489662601046278/1368603503152179/?type=1&theater>