Geographical Confusion: the Land of Demon-Possessed Pigs?

Fairly early in his ministry Jesus and his twelve disciples ventured to the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee and encountered a Legion of demons and their reluctant hosts.¹ All three Synoptic Gospels report this incident in great detail but are confusingly obscure about the specific geographical location (Matt. 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-40). Was it the land of the Gadarenes or the Gerasenes or the Gergesenes? While the townships of Gadara [Γάδαρα], Gerasa [Γέρασα], and Gergesa [Γέργεσα] are assumed, these communities were considerable distances apart in various proximities to the Sea of Galilee.

Textual Variation²

Variant readings among extant manuscripts occur in each Synoptic account. In Matthew 8:28 most manuscripts read “Gergesenes,”³ although the weight of textual evidence supports “Gadarenes,”⁴ while a number of ancient versions favor “Gerasenes.”⁵ In Mark 5:1 and Luke 8:26 and 37 the majority of manuscripts read “Gadarenes,”⁶ yet  “Gerasenes” is better supported by the weight of textual evidence,⁷ and “Gergesenes” is another variant reading.⁸

Geographical Probability

Gadara (modern-day Umm Qais in NW Jordan) was about 6 miles (9.6 km) from the Sea of Galilee, and Gerasa (modern-day Jerash in N. Jordan) was approximately 37 miles (60 km) away. Closer to the coast was Gergesa, which would explain why Origen (ca. 184-253), Eusebius (ca. 260-339), and later copyists preferred this particular location.⁹ Archaeologically identified as the lakeside village of El Kursi (in Israeli controlled Golan Heights), it more readily corresponds to the Gospel accounts: “they sailed down” to this area (Luke 8:26) and were encountered “immediately” once exiting the boat (Mark 5:2). The site also has nearby tombs and a steep bank descending to the shore (Matt. 8:28, 32; Mark 5:2-5, 13; Luke 8:27, 33).¹⁰

Why the Geographical Confusion?

The incident occurred in the greater Decapolis region (Mark 5:20), where both Gadara and Gerasa were among the league of ten cities (Pliny, Natural History 5.16). None of the Synoptic authors names a particular city. They each speak of the χώρα (“country” or “region”) of a much broader territory incorporating and surrounding these municipalities, where the Gadarene, Gerasene, and Gergesene peoples all lived.

Although Gerasa was the farthest away from the sea, it was the largest and better known.¹¹ Mark and Luke both allude to “the country of the Gerasenes” as a geographical marker that would have been more familiar to their respective non-Jewish audiences living far away and unacquainted with the area. While Gadara was smaller and lesser known, Matthew writes to a Jewish audience somewhat familiar with the region, so he can be more defined with reference to the Gadarenes. In fact, Josephus reports that this territory reached to the “frontier” or “coast” of the water boundary (Life 9.42). And if variant readings are afforded any level of credence, all three Synoptic authors would be even more precise than most modern versions indicate.

Conclusion

At first glance the textual, intertextual, and geographical discrepancies give the appearance of inaccuracy and disharmony among the Synoptics. However, geographical specificity does not seem to be the intent of the respective authors. The general area on the eastern coast of the Sea of Galilee in mid-west Decapolis is clearly in view (Mark 5:13, 20). Alert readers recognize that Jesus is venturing into predominantly Gentile territory and thus laying the groundwork for his eventual call to make disciples of all nations.¹²

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Matthew records two demoniacs, one of whom would have been the more dominant or notorious figure who became the Lord’s emissary, singularly featured in the accounts of Mark and Luke. See K. L. Moore, “Synoptic Confusion: Matthew’s ‘Two’ vs. Mark and Luke’s ‘One’?” Moore Perspective (2 Jan. 2019), <Link>.

     ² See P. W. Comfort, A Commentary on the Manuscripts and Text of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2015): 141, 183-84, 217-18; B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, 2nd ed. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994): 18-19, 72, 121. 

     ³ The Byzantine Majority Text and Textus Receptus; cf. Darby, JUB, LSV, N/KJV, WEB, YLT.

     ⁴ NA²⁷ and UBS⁵; cf. ASV, CSB, ESV, NAB, NASB, NET, NIV, NLT, N/RSV.

     ⁵ Latin Vulgata Clementina; cf. Douay-Rheims, ISV, Finnish Bible (1776), Latvian NT. This is probably a case of scribal harmonization with the parallel accounts in Mark and Luke.

     ⁶ The Byzantine Majority Text and Textus Receptus; cf. Darby, JUB, LSV, N/KJV, WEB, YLT.

     ⁷ NA²⁷ and UBS⁵; cf. ASV, CSB, Douay-Rheims, ESV, ISV, NAB, NASB, NET, NIV, NLT, N/RSV.

     ⁸ Fourth/fifth-century Codex Washingtonianus.

     ⁹ Origin, Commentary on John 6.24; Eusebius, Onomasticon 73.14. See T. J. Baarda, “Gadarenes, Gerasenes, Gergesenes and the ‘Diatessaron’ Traditions,” in E. E. Ellis and M. E. Wilcox, eds., Neotestamentica et Semitica: Studies in honour of Matthew Black (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1969): 181-197.

     ¹⁰ C. A. Evans and S. E. Porter, eds., Dictionary of New Testament Backgrounds (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000): 97; Joel Marcus, Mark 1–8 AYB (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008): 27:342; John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008): 166-168; W. Sanday, Sacred Sites of the Gospels (Oxford: Clarendon, 1903): 27; Vassilios Tzaferis, “A Pilgrimage to the Site of the Swine Miracle,” BAR 15 (1989): 48. Thanks to the research of Colt Mahana, “Healing of the Gerasene Demoniac (Mark 5:1-20),” FHU BIB 515: Synoptic Gospels (9 April 2022): 1-15.

     ¹¹ D. M. Doriani, “Matthew,” in I. M. Duguid, J. M. Hamilton, Jr., and J. Sklar, eds., ESV Expository Commentary (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2021): 8:143 n.140; C. S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2014): 139.

     ¹² See K. L. Moore, “Beyond the Jordan: an Ethnogeographical Study,” Moore Perspective (9 June 2021), <Link>.

Addendum:

In the early 1980s the Sea of Galilee’s water levels were low, exposing the ancient harbor of the lakeside village of El Kursi, one of fourteen harbors around the lake. A fish tank was also discovered. The water levels rose in the mid-1980s. Today a thick bamboo forest makes it inaccessible by land but it can be accessed by water and under water. The surrounding topography fits the biblical account, with a steep slope and nearby tombs. Craig E. Evans and Scott Stripling, “Did the Swine drown at Gergesa? Another Look at Mark 5:1 in Light of Text and Topography,” ETS 76th Annual Meeting (11 Nov. 2024), San Diego, CA.

Related Posts: Legion of Demons, Herd of Swine, Unlikely Missionary, 2000 Pigs: Historical Relavence

 

Image credit: adapted from <https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-the-Decapolis-region_fig1_30843902>

Beyond the Jordan: an Ethnogeographical Study

The Jordan River, explicitly referenced nearly 200 times in scripture, flows north to south from Mt. Hermon through the Sea of Galilee into the Dead Sea. Only about 30 meters (100 feet) wide at its broadest point, and just over 5 meters (17 feet) at its deepest, it is a primary water source for an otherwise arid land. Its biblical significance comes from major events occurring in, around, and through it.¹

When the Abrahamic land promise was fulfilled,² most of the Israelite tribes settled on the western side of the river, later known as Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. The tribes of Manasseh, Gad, and Reuben settled lands on the eastern side, later known as Perea, the Decapolis, and the upper region. When the biblical record alludes to a location “beyond” or “across” the Jordan,³ what does this mean? Is the eastern side or the western side in view, and does it even matter? 

Perspective

Sometimes the particular direction or locality is clearly stated or implied.⁴ At other times, however, it depends on the vantage point of the one making the observation, including allusions to “this side” and “the other side.”⁵ From the standpoint of the speaker or the writer, the directional view is mostly eastward,⁶ though at other times the west side of the river is intended.⁷

In the New Testament, only the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John make references to “beyond the Jordan.” Luke’s record does not use this terminology. The most apparent reason is the different authorial perspectives. Luke is not an ethnic Jew and, as far as we know, not from an area historically regarded as Jewish territory. The other three Gospel writers are. From a 1st-century Palestinian Jewish perspective, the phrase “beyond the Jordan” typically looks eastward.

Prophetic Significance

The phrase occurs in Matthew 4:15 in a quote from Isaiah 9:1. This could be alluding to the former land of the Amorites east of the Jordan, inhabited by Gentiles in Isaiah’s day, thus “Galilee of the nations.” However, from the vantage point of Israel’s northern enemies, particularly the Assyrians (cf. Isa. 8:4, 7), it would apply to the west side of the river, later known as Upper Galilee (formerly “land of Naphtali”) and Lower Galilee (formerly “land of Zebulun”), thus the home base and initial focus of the Lord’s public ministry.⁸

Evangelistic Significance

Jesus grew up west of the Jordan River in the Galilean village of Nazareth (Matt. 2:23) and later made his home base in Capernaum, a fishing village much closer to the water boundary (Matt. 4:13). Although his ministry initially and primarily targeted the people of Galilee, Judea, and to some extent Samaria, his far-reaching influence also impacted lives east of the river in the Decapolis and other places “beyond the Jordan” (Matt. 4:25; Mark 3:8). While principally pursuing “the lost sheep of the house of Israel” (Matt. 10:6; 15:24), his earthly ministry was much broader than is often recognized. 

Jesus earned the reputation for associating with tax collectors and “sinners” (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:34), the latter expression descriptive of Gentiles (Gal. 2:15; cf. Acts 10:28) and of Jews who were not diligent students and practitioners of the law and traditions (cf. John 7:49). It is noteworthy that the accusations were made in Capernaum (Matt. 9:10-13; Mark 2:15-17; Luke 5:30-32), on the border of the Jordan River, and in Perea (Luke 15:1-2), across the Jordan. Since Jesus “came into the world to save sinners” (1 Tim. 1:15), these are the kinds of people who needed to hear his message (Matt. 4:17; 9:12-13).

East of the Jordan: the Upper Region

In the upper region east of the Jordan, Bethsaida was the hometown of at least three of the Lord’s earliest disciples: Philip, Andrew, and Simon Peter (John 1:44).⁹ Jesus was not in Galilee when he first encountered these men, and Andrew had learned of Christ through John the baptist’s ministry (John 1:35-43), which was mostly “beyond the Jordan” (John 1:28; 3:26; 10:40). Being from this culturally-diverse region would explain why Philip and Andrew are the Lord’s only apostles with Greek names. On one occasion, when certain Greeks desired to meet Jesus, it was Philip and Andrew who served as intermediaries (John 12:20-22).

In this area across the Jordan (a.k.a. Gaulantis) Jesus taught, healed, and then fed over 5,000 hungry people with five barley loaves and two small fish, his only miracle (besides the resurrection) recorded in all four Gospels (Matt. 14:13-21; Mark 6:31-44; Luke 9:10-17; John 6:1-14). As locals, both Philip and Andrew had important roles in the narrative. Jesus singled out Philip, inquiring of him where bread might be purchased in the vicinity, and Andrew is the one who introduced the Lord to a local boy with food, perhaps knowing the youngster personally (John 6:5-9). Unfortunately, the general populace of Bethsaida were not receptive to the Lord’s teaching and miracles (Matt. 11:20-22; Luke 10:13-14; John 6:15-66). 

Caesarea Philippi was also on the eastern side of the Jordan River, where Christ made the promise to build his universal church as he ministered with his disciples in surrounding villages (Matt. 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30). The city was named after Caesar Augustus and Herod Philip II, formerly known as Paneas, after the Greek god Pan. The Lord and his disciples were far removed from their monotheistic Jewish environment, deep in pagan territory. The description in John 12:21 is apparently ethnogeographical rather than political, as both Bethsaida [Julias] and Caesarea Philippi were just beyond Galilee’s political boundaries and within the jurisdiction of Herod Philip II, today in the region known as the Galilee Panhandle.

East of the Jordan: the Decapolis

The Decapolis (League of Ten Cities) was comprised of Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, Raphana, Canatha, Damascus, Philadelphia, and Galasa (Pliny, Natural History 5.16). Other than Damascus of Syria, the rest of these communities, following the 4th-century BC conquests of Alexander the Great, were established as Greek municipalities and at various times controlled and influenced by the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, the Nabateans, and eventually the Romans. 

After the people of Judea broke free from Seleucid control and regained their independence in 142 BC, the Hasmonean dynasty increased in power, wealth, and territory, conquering Idumea to the south and cities of the Decapolis to the east. By 63 BC the Romans had gained control and liberated these Hellenized cities, allowing them political independence under Roman protection. Each was considered a polis or city-state, with jurisdiction over its surrounding countryside. In the early 1st century AD the culturally-diverse region east of the Jordan River was far more Greco-Roman than Jewish.

Among Christ’s many followers were those of the Decapolis district (Matt. 4:25), as he ventured beyond the Jordan into a place his fellow-Jews considered unclean, with unclean animals and unclean people tormented by unclean spirits (Matt. 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39). Despite initial rejection, he graciously returned to do good works, “and they glorified the God of Israel” (Matt. 15:29-31; Mark 7:31-37). His compassion compelled him to heal the afflicted and perform another great feeding miracle, with only seven loaves and a few small fish to fill over 4,000 famished souls (Matt. 15:32-39; Mark 8:1-10). These feeding miracles served as object lessons for the sometimes oblivious apostles (Mark 6:52; 8:17-21).

East of the Jordan: Perea

Perea (meaning “the country beyond”) was on the eastern side of the Jordan, south of the Decapolis, the territory formerly occupied by the pre-exilic Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben. When Herod the Great was appointed by the Roman Senate as Judea’s king in 37 BC, Perea was included in his jurisdiction, later transferred to his son Antipas (cf. Luke 23:6-7), then to his grandson Agrippa I (cf. Acts 12:19-20), and eventually absorbed into the provinces of Judea and Syria Palestina under the control of a military prefect.

Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (4 BC to AD 39) when John the baptizer was preparing the way for Christ’s ministry (Luke 3:1-6). John was from the hill country of Judah (Luke 1:39), the northern part of which was roughly 16 kilometers (10 miles) from the Jordan River. The Jordan Valley runs along both sides of the river, and much of the lower region is wilderness.¹⁰ John conducted his ministry in the more isolated wilderness of Judea (Matt. 3:1; Luke 3:4), albeit mainly “beyond the Jordan” (John 1:28; 3:26; 10:40). Jesus and his disciples also baptized masses of people in this general area (John 3:26; 4:1-3).

As John went “into all the surrounding region of the Jordan” (Luke 3:3), multitudes went out to hear his preaching from “all the region around the Jordan” (Matt. 3:5-6; 11:7-10). Since he was “at first” immersing in a particular place across the Jordan (John 10:40), no single location can be identified as his only baptismal site, although farther north in the Galilee region seems to be excluded (Matt. 3:13; 4:12; Mark 1:9, 14; Luke 4:14 John 1:43). On at least one occasion he was baptizing converts from the west side of the river (John 3:23, cp. v. 26). 

A distinction is made in the Fourth Gospel between the Bethany “near Jerusalem” (John 11:18) and the Bethany in a more remote area “beyond the Jordan” (John 1:28).¹¹ The Bethany west of the river was a small town on the southeastern slope of the Mount of Olives, less than 3.2 kilometers (2 miles) from Jerusalem (Matt. 21:17; 26:6-13; 12:1-8; Mark 11:1, 11-12; 14:3-9; Luke 19:29; 24:50; John 11:1-46). The Jordan River is about 33 kilometers (21 miles) east of Jerusalem (note John 1:19), and John’s original baptismal site was within a couple of days’ walk from the Bethany near Jerusalem (John 1:28; 10:40; 11:1, 6, 17).

John the baptizer was eventually arrested and executed by Herod Antipas, in whose territory he had been preaching and baptizing (Matt. 14:1-12; Mark 6:14-29; Luke 3:19-20; 9:9). The death sentence was the result of John denouncing the tetrarch’s unlawful marriage to his half-niece Herodias. Jesus was informed of the incident (Matt. 14:12), and his attitude toward the malicious ruler was not favorable (Mark 8:15; Luke 13:31-32).¹²

A couple of years later Jesus was “beyond the Jordan” when some Pharisees publicly asked him about the legality of a husband divorcing his spouse for just any cause (Matt. 19:1-2; Mark 10:1-2). At the time they were in the political jurisdiction of Herod Antipas, a divorced man married to a divorced woman,¹³ wielding the power of life and death. The trap they were attempting to set makes the straightforward and courageous response of Jesus even more impactful. Like John, he implicitly regarded such a relationship unlawful (Matt. 19:4-9; Mark 10:3-12). 

East of the Jordan: Nabatea

Beyond the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas, farther east and southeast was the Arabian Desert and the land of the Nabateans, which the Romans called Arabia (cf. Gal. 4:25). The kingdom was ruled for approximately forty-eight years (9 BC – AD 40) by King Aretas IV (cf. 2 Cor. 11:32-33), whose daughter, Phasaelis, was married to and divorced by Herod Antipas before his remarriage to Herodias.

During the Middle Nabatean period (30 BC – AD 70) the boundaries fluctuated but would have included what is today known as the Sinai, the Negev, the east side of the Jordan Valley, much of Jordan, and part of Saudi Arabia. At times it incorporated Damascus and other cities of the Decapolis. Jews from Arabia (the Nabatean Kingdom) were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11) and potentially returned home with the gospel (Acts 8:4). Later Saul of Tarsus was converted in Damascus and then spent the first three years of his Christian life in the general vicinity of Damascus in Arabia (Acts 9:3-19; Gal. 1:15-18).¹⁴

The biblical record does not indicate for how much of the three years Saul was in Arabia or what he did there, but in view of his preaching Christ almost immediately after his conversion (Acts 9:20-22) and subsequently arousing the disfavor of the Nabatean king (2 Cor. 11:32), missionary activity seems likely. While in Arabia, it is plausible that he worked with Arabian Christian Jews converted in Jerusalem, who had been forced to flee from Jerusalem due to the persecution he had earlier instigated (Acts 2:11, 41; 8:1-4).

Conclusion

Explicit allusions in the New Testament to the Lord’s care and outreach among non-Jewish people are rare until the end of his public ministry (Matt. 8:5-13; 15:21-28; 28:18-20). However, implicit in the ethnogeographical details of the biblical record is a much broader and more accurate description. His mission field included but was in no way limited to conservative Judaism in Jewish territories.¹⁵ From as far south as Idumea, as far north as Syria, as far west as the Mediterranean coastline, and as far east as “beyond the Jordan” (Matt. 4:24-25; Mark 3:7-8), in only three to three-and-a-half years Christ’s teaching and influence impacted lives in an area of over 46,000 square kilometers (18,000 sq. miles). 

Afterwards the universal gospel message spread and continues to spread even farther as his great commission was and continues to be carried out to all nations in all the world (Acts 1:8; Col. 1:5-6). Metaphorically, we still venture “beyond the Jordan" when we trust God enough to leave our comfort zones, stepping out in faith to do his will, especially in demonstrating Christ-like love toward those who are different than us culturally, ethnically, socially, religiously, and morally. It involves “not seeking my own advantage but of the many, that they may be saved” (1 Cor. 10:33b).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ After twenty years in Mesopotamia, Jacob and his family crossed the Jordan River westward into the land of Canaan (Gen. 32:10). Centuries later, following their exodus from Egypt and four decades of nomadic wandering, Jacob’s descendants returned to Canaan from the eastern side by crossing the river on dry ground (Josh. 3:17; 4:22-24). Elijah and Elisha crossed the Jordan eastward on dry ground, then Elisha did it again in the opposite direction (2 Kings 2:7-14). Naaman the Syrian was cleansed of leprosy by dipping seven times in the Jordan (2 Kings 5:10-14), and Jesus was baptized in the same river (Matt. 3:13-17).

     ² Gen. 12:7; 13:14-17; 15:7-18; Deut. 4:1; 16:20; Josh. 3:14-17; 21:43-45; 1 Kings 4:21; Neh. 9:7-8; Acts 7:2-5, 17, 45.

     ³ Some translators and commentators avoid the question with a more generic expression like “near” or “in the vicinity of,” but in so doing rob the text of its more specific geographical focus. Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ⁴ Deut. 4:49; Josh. 1:15; 5:1; 12:7; 13:27, 32; 20:8; 22:7; Num. 32:19; 1 Chron. 26:30.

     ⁵ Deut. 1:1, 5; 4:41, 46, 47; Josh. 1:14; cf. 2 Sam. 19:31-41.

     ⁶ From the speaker’s point of reference: Deut. 3:8; Josh. 1:15; 2:10; 7:7; 9:10; 18:7; 22:4; 24:8; Judg. 5:17; 33:32; 35:14; from the writer’s point of reference: Gen. 50:10-11; Num. 22:1; 34:15; Josh. 12:1; 13:8; 14:3; 17:5; Judg. 7:25; 10:8; 1 Sam. 31:7; 1 Chron. 12:37.

     ⁷ Deut. 3:20, 25; 11:30; Josh. 9:1; 2 Sam. 19:15; Isa. 9:1.

     ⁸ The region had been controlled by Phoenician king Hiram I of Tyre-Sidon in the 10th century BC (cf. 1 Kings 9:11-14) and later populated by the Assyrians with exiled foreigners in the 8th century BC (cf. 2 Kings 17:5-24). Within its 1st-century AD borders were Hellenistic communities like Tiberias (on the Sea of Galilee’s western coast) and the capital Sepphoris (near Nazareth), primary cultural centers of Greco-Roman influence. The Lord’s directive in Matt. 10:5 implies the presence of Gentiles in the region. Upper Galilee is mountainous and barren, at times providing a much-needed getaway for Jesus (Matt. 14:23; Mark 6:46; John 6:15). Lower Galilee was a lot more populated, so the bulk of the Lord’s ministry was spent traveling around its many villages (Matt. 9:35; Mark 6:6). Christ’s immediate disciples, with the possible exception of Judas Iscariot, were all regarded as Galileans (Acts 1:11; 2:7).

     ⁹ Although Bethsaida was the hometown of Andrew and his brother Simon Peter, at some point they were living in a house on the other side of the Jordan River in Capernaum (Mark 1:21, 29). Being fishermen by trade, they would have been subject to taxation whenever they crossed the river into the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas (cf. Luke 5:27). The house in Capernaum may have belonged to the family of Peter’s wife.

     ¹⁰ The Eastern Plateau, east of the Jordan River and west of the Arabian Desert, was the location of the Transjordanian Mountains (incl. Mt. Hermon), the Decapolis, and Perea. Much of the lower region, which includes Jericho (Matt. 20:29) and Qumran, is wilderness. This is probably the wilderness area where Jesus was tested by the devil for nearly six weeks (Matt. 4:1-11). The desolate valley would have provided the Lord and his disciples secluded places of solitude (Luke 5:16; 9:10; cf. Mark 1:35).

     ¹¹ The variant reading Βηθαβαρᾶ (“Bethabara”) appears in the Textus Receptus version of John 1:28 (see LSV, N/KJV, RAV, YLT), although the weight of evidence favors Βηθανίᾳ (“Bethany”) as in NA²⁸/UBS⁵ and the Byzantine Majority Text. The confusion generated by two locations of the same name probably led Origen to favor “Bethabara,” influencing Eusebius, Jerome, and the Textus Receptus. There is no clear reason to alter the text otherwise, even though there were other places sharing the same names (e.g., Gibeah, Antioch, Caesarea, Philadelphia, Nicopolis). The apostle John himself deemed it necessary to make the geographical distinctions, “near Jerusalem” vs. “beyond the Jordan.” For a more extensive discussion, see J. Carl Laney, Selective Geographical Problems in the Life of Christ (Dallas, TX: Dallas Theological Seminary, 1977): 50-70 <Link>. 

     ¹² The reading in Mark 8:15 in most Greek manuscripts is “Herod,” but the alternate reading “Herodians” occurs in some, alluding to the political supporters of Herod Antipas.

     ¹³ Antipas had divorced his wife Phasaelis, the daughter of the Nabatean king Aretas IV, in order to marry Herodias, who had previously been married to his half-brother Philip I. Josephus reports: “Herod the tetrarch had married the daughter of Aretas; and had lived with her a great while …. However he fell in love with Herodias, this last Herod’s [Philip’s] wife …. One article of this marriage also was this, that he should divorce Aretas’s daughter…. But Herodias, their [Aristobulus and Agrippa’s] sister, was married to Herod [Philip], the son of Herod the Great …. Herodias took upon her to confound the laws of our country, and divorced her self from her husband, while he was alive, and was married to Herod [Antipas], her husband’s brother by the father’s side. He was tetrarch of Galilee” (Ant. 18.5.1, 4).

     ¹⁴ Paul was in Damascus at least twice: (a) when he was converted to Christ (Acts 9:8-19), and (b) when he returned from Arabia (Gal. 1:15-17). His initial departure was prompted by a Jewish plot to kill him, and his second departure was instigated by the ethnarch of Damascus desiring to arrest him. On both occasions Paul’s escape was executed by being let down in a basket through the city wall.

     ¹⁵ Christ’s initial focus was necessarily among his ethnic kinsmen (Matt. 10:5-6; 15:24) but his ultimate purpose and practical ministry were not so restricted (Matt. 9:36-37; 25:32; 28:19; John 10:16; cf. Rom. 1:16).

 

Related Posts: Ethno-Geographical Context of NT Books

Images credit: https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjr7G7xCYdcHVIgAmynkxZs1ZIUP0ZjokFb17WeDIvzi4EXAwaWt3b4HmnJ2h-xM49rrZe3PzC35uFjNwSeclkdaOTEYdKtwXK5Qtf-bXXxoZfynXSMtEiCOD8ZvItdw2C92bZP_lbldZc/s1600/Jordan++River,+north+Sea+of+Galilee+2006-03-02.JPG; and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perea

The Bible’s Geographical Context (Part 2)

The Mediterranean World of the New Testament 

By the 1st century AD the Roman Empire surrounded the Mediterranean Sea, extending eastward from the far western frontier of Spain all the way to North Africa, Judea, and Syria. During the Lord’s earthly ministry, while concentrating mainly on Galilee and Judea, his influence and teachings impacted lives as far north as Syria, as far east as the Decapolis and Perea, as far south as Idumea, and all in between (Matt. 4:24-25; Mark 3:7-8)—a radius of approx. 18,000 square miles (29,000+ sq. kms). Even so, Christ’s message is universal in scope and was ultimately designed to reach “to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8; 13:47, author's own translation). 

The book of Acts covers the first 32 years of the Christian mission, and when the historical narrative closes, Christianity has spread as far as Italy but no definitive record is given of the gospel having reached areas west of Rome, east of Syria, or south of Palestine. However, Acts was not intended to be an intricately detailed account of every single event that occurred in the early church (cf., e.g., Gal. 1:15–2:14; 2 Cor. 11:24-29). Whatever did not suit Luke’s immediate purpose was naturally excluded. Nevertheless, there are indications that the Christian movement did extend farther (Acts 2:5-11; 8:4, 27, 39). 

Places mentioned in Acts where the gospel was definitely preached, although no specific reference is made as to when or by whom this initially occurred, include Galilee (Acts 9:31), Cilicia (Acts 15:23), various parts of Syria (Acts 9:2, 10; 15:23; 21:3-4, 7),¹ Cappadocia and Pontus (Acts 2:10; cf. 1 Pet. 1:1), Bithynia (Acts 16:7; cf. 1 Pet. 1:1), multiple cities of Asia Minor (Acts 16:8-11; 19:10; 20:6-12; cf. Col. 1:2; 4:13-16; Rev. 1:11), Cenchrea (Acts 18:18; cf. Rom. 16:1), Crete (Acts 2:11; 27:7-8; cf. Tit. 1:5), and in Italy—Puteoli and Rome (Acts 28:13-15). 

Places mentioned in Acts where the gospel was likely preached, although no specific reference is made as to when or by whom this occurred, include Arabia (Acts 2:11; cf. Gal. 1:17), the eastern regions of Parthia, Media, Elam, and Mesopotamia (Acts 2:9), as well as the African nations of Egypt (Acts 2:10; 18:24), Libya and Cyrene (Acts 2:10; cf. 11:20; 13:1), and Ethiopia (Acts 8:27, 39).

Places not mentioned in Acts where the gospel definitely spread include the city of Nicopolis in northwest Greece (Tit. 3:12),² and the province of Illyricum (Rom. 15:19)—northwest of Macedonia,³ the southern part of which was Dalmatia (2 Tim. 4:10). Of the places not mentioned in Acts where the gospel potentially spread, Spain would be included in the west (Rom. 15:24, 28), and Scythia in the east (Col. 3:11).⁴

While there are a number of general statements in Paul’s writings about the widespread dissemination of the gospel,⁵ early in 62 he claims that the gospel had been diffused “in all the world …. among all creation under heaven” (Col. 1:5-6, 23). Hyperbolic expression notwithstanding, the extent of the gospel’s proclamation seems to have been much greater than what is specifically documented in the New Testament. Evidence of churches in various areas of the world in the 2nd century (and beyond) further suggests origins dating back to the 1st century.

Roman Provinces

After congregations of the Lord’s church were established in Judea, Samaria, and Galilee (Acts 1:8; 9:31), the gospel was taken farther north to the Roman province of Syria, particularly the cities of Damascus (Acts 9:2, 10), Antioch (Acts 11:19), Tyre (Acts 21:3-4), and Ptolemais (Acts 21:7). The gospel also spread westward to the island-province of Cyprus (Acts 11:19; 13:4) and possibly to Cyrene in N. Africa (Acts 11:19). In Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), the southern provinces seem to have been reached first, viz. Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41), Galatia (Acts 13–14), and Asia (Acts 18:19–19:10; Rev. 1:11). Eventually there were established churches in the northern provinces of Cappadocia, Pontus and Bithynia as well (1 Pet. 1:1). Farther west, across the Aegean Sea, the gospel spread to the province of Macedonia, viz. the cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea (Acts 16:12–17:15); also the Achaia province, viz. the cities of Athens (Acts 17:34), Corinth (Acts 18:1-18), and Cenchrea (Rom. 16:1). At some point Paul was able to take the gospel as far north as the Illyricum province (Rom. 15:19; cf. 2 Tim. 4:10). 

By the mid-1st century there were established congregations in the capital city of Rome and nearby Puteoli (Rom. 1:7; Acts 28:13-15), which may have been planted by ethnic Jews and proselytes converted to Christ in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10; 8:4). The outermost western province was Spain [Lat. Hispania], and Paul expressed his desire to take the gospel there with the help of his Roman brethren (Rom. 15:23-29). While unforeseen circumstances altered the original plan, it is entirely possible that he went on to achieve this goal after his first Roman imprisonment; it would have taken less than a week to sail from Italy to Spain.⁶ 

Clement of Rome, near the end of the 1st century, affirms that Paul preached the gospel in the extreme west of the Roman Empire, which at the time would have included Spain (I Clement 5.1-7). The 2nd-century Muratorian Fragment (lines 38-39) and Acts of Peter (chap. 3) take Paul’s Spanish journey for granted, as do the 4th-century testimonies of Cyril of Jerusalem (Cat. Lect. 17.26), John Chrysostom (2 Tim. Homily 10), and later Jerome (Amos 5).

Whenever Paul includes geographical references in his letters, he is almost certainly recalling the names and faces and stories of those he dearly loved in these places. When he speaks of Macedonia, for example, it is not the provincial or geographical locality that interests or concerns him, but the Macedonians themselves (2 Cor. 9:2, 4) and the churches of Macedonia in particular (2 Cor. 8:1). These congregations were comprised of individuals whom Paul knew personally and cared for deeply.⁷

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ The Syro-Phoenician woman helped by Jesus (Mark 7:24-30) could have been an early convert. It is plausible that the Gospel of Matthew was written from and/or sent to Antioch of Syria, as the first clear usage of it appears in the early 2nd-century writings of Ignatius (see Smyrn.1.1; Eph. 19.1-3; Polc. 2.2). The Didache (Teachings) of the Twelve Apostles and Odes of Solomon were produced in Syria, potentially near the end of the 1st century (or at least by the early 2nd century).

     ² The location of this city is uncertain, since different cities shared this same name in various places, including Asia, Africa, and Europe. It is plausible that this particular Nicopolis was in Thrace (near the borders of Macedonia) or in Cilicia, but more likely in the province of Epirus in NW Greece.

     ³ Present-day N. Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia, and coastal Croatia.

     ⁴ Eastern Iranians around the Black Sea: modern-day SE Ukraine, S. Russia, W. Kazakhstan; according to tradition, evangelized by the apostles Andrew and Philip.

     ⁵ 1 Thess. 1:8 (AD 50-51); Rom. 1:8; 10:18; 15:23 (AD 56-57).

     ⁶ See K. L. Moore, “The Background of the Letters to Timothy and Titus,” in Entrusted With the Faith (2018 FHU Lectureship Book, ed. D. Y. Burleson): 79-82.

     ⁷ See K. L. Moore, “The Macedonians Had Names,” Moore Perspective (20 May 2015), <Link>.

Related Posts: The Bible's Geographical Context Part 1, Ethno-Geographical Context of NT

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The Bible’s Geographical Context (Part 1)

If the plethoric geographical references throughout scripture are any indication, Bible geography must be important. Jesus and his earliest followers lived in real places where environmental features “contributed to the ‘framework’ or ‘lens’ through which they saw life” (G. M. Burge, et al., NT in Antiquity 54). New Testament allusions to localities and physical surroundings presuppose that readers are familiar with the topography, climate, and populace of these places, along with the respective ethnic, cultural, and political environments. The relevance of these settings in shaping events and even teachings should not be overlooked. 

New Testament Palestine 

The area historically known as Palestine lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The southwestern coastal territory, inhabited by the Philistines prior to the arrival of the Israelites, was called Peleshet (“Philistia”) in Hebrew, meaning “land of the Philistines” (Psa. 60:8; 87:4; 108:9; cf. Josh. 13:2-3). The Greek derivative Palaistinē was used by Herodotus and later Greek writers to refer to the entire region (between Phoenicia and Egypt), followed by Roman authors like Ovid, Pliny, Dio Chrysostom, and Plutarch, as well as Jewish authors like Philo and Josephus. The designation was revived by the Romans in the 2nd century AD as the Latin Palaestina (“Palestine”) in reference to the Roman province of Syria Palaestina.

As far as biblical history is concerned (cf. Num. 34), the boundaries extend to the Mediterranean coastline to the west, the Jordan River to the east, the Galilee mountains to the north, and the central deserts to the south, although Jewish settlements outside these boundaries date back to the time of Joshua (cf. Josh. 22:4-9). This area “forms a land bridge that connected great empires in antiquity. Because of the massive deserts of Arabia and Syria, trade and communication between Mesopotamia and Egypt passed along the upper Euphrates River and then south through Israel, continuing to Egypt …” (G. M. Burge, et al., NT in Antiquity 55).

The land can be divided into five major longitudinal zones: (1) the coastal plain, (2) the coastal hills, (3) the central mountain range, (4) the Jordan valley, and (5) the eastern plateau. Because of diverse topographical features, much of Galilee would be placed in a separate geographical category.¹

The Coastal Plain comprises a 120-miles’ (193-kms) stretch of the western boundary of Judea and Samaria, from below Gaza in the south to Mount Carmel in the north. It was in this area that the apostle Peter ministered in the town of Lydda, the district of Sharon, and the coastal village of Joppa (Acts 9:32-43). The Ethiopian eunuch encountered the evangelist Philip on his way from Jerusalem to Egypt via Gaza (Acts 8:26-39). Afterwards Philip traveled north along the coast to the seaport city of Caesarea Maritima (v. 40), built by Herod the Great. This was the home of the first Gentile converts (Acts 10:1) and the site where Paul was incarcerated for a couple of years prior to his Roman imprisonment (Acts 23:23–27:1). 

The Coastal Hills are east of the coastal plain, from around Beersheba in the south to just east of Caesarea Maritima in the north. There were a number of settlements along these hills, whose lights would have been visible at night from far away – “a city placed on a hill cannot be hidden” (Matt. 5:14, author’s own translation). One of these villages was Emmaus, around 7 miles (11 kms) from Jerusalem and apparent home of the disciple Cleopas (Luke 24:13-36). 

The Central Mountain Range runs east of the coastal hills from below Hebron in the south to the upper regions of Samaria in the north. Cities built in this mountainous region included Hebron in Judea (cf. 2 Sam. 2:1; 5:5) and Shechem near Mt. Gerizim in Samaria (John 4:20; Acts 7:16), with the Jewish capital of Jerusalem at the center. The village of Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1) was about 5 miles (8 kms) south of Jerusalem, with Bethphage and Bethany about 2 miles (3 kms) to the east (Mark 11:1; John 11:18).² A road connected Shechem in the north and Hebron in the south, passing through Shiloh, Bethel, Ramah, Gibeah, Jerusalem, and Bethlehem.

The Jordan Valley,³ descending nearly 10 miles (16 kms) eastward from the central mountains to the Jordan River, runs southward from Dan in the north (southwest of Mt. Hermon)⁴ through the Sea of Galilee, on through the Dead Sea (earth’s lowest point) beyond the southern border of Israel to the Red Sea, approximately 260 miles (418 kms). Much of the lower region, which includes Jericho (Matt. 20:29) and Qumran, is wilderness. This is probably the wilderness area where Jesus was tested by the devil for nearly six weeks (Matt. 4:1-11). The desolate valley would have provided the Lord and his disciples secluded places of solitude (Luke 5:16; 9:10; cf. Mark 1:35). The main road from Jerusalem downhill to Jericho was particularly hazardous (Luke 10:30).

The Eastern Plateau, east of the Jordan River and west of the Arabian Desert, was the location of the Transjordanian Mountains (incl. Mt. Hermon), the Decapolis, and Perea. This would have been the territory “beyond the Jordan” (Matt. 4:25; 19:1; Mark 3:8; John 1:28; 3:26; 10:40), which included the jurisdictions of Herod Antipas (Matt. 14:1-12; Luke 13:32) and the Nabateans (Gal. 1:17; 2 Cor. 11:32). Both John the baptizer and Jesus included this general area in their ministries (John 3:26; etc.).

Galilee is north of Judea and Samaria and south of Syria, with the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River respectively serving as its western and eastern boundaries. Upper Galilee is mountainous and barren, at times providing a much-needed getaway for Jesus (Matt. 14:23; Mark 6:46; John 6:15). Lower Galilee was a lot more populated, so the bulk of the Lord’s ministry was spent traveling around its many villages (Matt. 9:35; Mark 6:6). Jesus grew up in the Galilean village of Nazareth (Matt. 2:23) and later made his home-base in the fishing village of Capernaum (Matt. 4:13). The Lord’s immediate disciples apparently were all Galileans (Acts 2:7).⁵

Once known as “Galilee of the Gentiles” (Isa. 9:1; cf. Matt. 4:15), the region had been controlled by Phoenician king Hiram I of Tyre-Sidon in the 10th century BC and later populated by the Assyrians with exiled foreigners in the 8th century BC. Within its 1st-century AD borders were Hellenistic communities like Tiberias (on the Sea of Galilee’s western coast) and the capital Sepphoris (near Nazareth). Archaeological discoveries of Galilean synagogues reveal Phoenician influences and tolerance of other cultures⁶—a stark contrast to the less indulgent Judeans.

Bethsaida and Caesarea Philippi were just beyond the political boundaries of Galilee. The description in John 12:21 is apparently geographical rather than political. Both townships were within the jurisdiction of Herod Philip II. The region of Caesarea Philippi may have been the farthest north Jesus travelled (Matt. 16:13), depending on how far into the region of Tyre and Sidon he had visited earlier (Matt. 15:21). While Bethsaida (a.k.a. Bethsaida Julias) was the hometown of the apostles Philip, Andrew, and Simon Peter (John 1:44), at some point Andrew and Peter were living in a house across the Jordan River in Capernaum (Mark 1:21, 29). Being fishermen by trade, they would have been subject to taxation whenever they crossed the Jordan River into the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas (cf. Luke 5:27). The house in Capernaum may have belonged to the family of Peter’s wife.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See G. M. Burge, et al., NT in Antiquity 55-62. In comparison C. G. Rasmussen, whose focus is not limited to the NT period but includes the entire biblical record, categorizes the zones as (1) the coastal plain, (2) the central mountain range, (3) the Rift Valley, (4) the Transjordanian mountains, and (5) the eastern desert (Zondervan Atlas of the Bible 21-28). Y. Aharoni considers four zones with multiple subdivisions: (1) the coastal zone, (2) the central mountain range (including Galilee), (3) the Jordan Rift, and (4) the Trans-jordanian highlands (The Land of the Bible 21-42).

     ² This was a different Bethany than the one across the Jordan (John 1:28; “Bethabara,” N/KJV). 

     ³ Part of the greater 1,800 miles’ (3,000 kms) Rift Valley that runs from Lebanon to SE Africa.

     ⁴ See Judg. 18:28-29, marking the northernmost border of Israel (Judg. 20:1; 1 Sam. 3:20; 2 Sam. 3:10). The melting snows of Mt. Hermon produce springs that form the Jordan River’s headwaters.

     ⁵ See The 12 Apostles. Since Judas Iscariot was not present on the Day of Pentecost, it is uncertain whether or not he was a Galilean. One theory concerning the moniker Iskariōth (“Iscariot”) is that it might be based on the Hebrew Îš-Qrîyôth, meaning “man of Kerioth,” thus identifying where Judas or his family was from (R. Baukham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses  106). Some manuscripts of John 6:71 have interpreted Iskariōtou as apò Karuōtou (“from Kerioth”) in relation to Judas’ father Simon (see B. M. Metzger, Textual Commentary [2nd ed.] 21, 184, 204, 205). If the theory is valid, then Judas Iscariot may have been the only one of Christ’s original apostles who was not a native Galilean. Kerioth was a town in southern Judea (Josh. 15:25), about 10 miles (16 km) south of Hebron.

     ⁶ See Hebrew University of Jerusalem, “Remains Of Ancient Synagogue With Unique Mosaic Floor Found In Galilee,” ScienceDaily (27 Nov. 2007), <Web>.

Related Posts: The Bible's Geographical Context Part 2, Ethno-Geographical Context of NT

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The Macedonians Had Names

Recollections

     What comes to mind when you hear the words “New Zealand”? Kiwi birds? Rugby? The Hobbit? I immediately think of Gauntlett Lotter, Jill Anderson, Peter Gray, Jane O’Donnell, Shirley Loveridge, Mac de Thierry, and a host of other special friends. Having been involved in the Lord’s work in New Zealand the past three decades, I have been blessed by close relationships with some of the finest people I know. 

     Starting at the Lower North Island, I’m thinking of Joan, Trish, Leigh, the Batemans, Arulandus, Raines, Toas, Phillips, Bannister clan, Robinsons, Zous, Angs, Jacobs, and so many others. Further up the highway are June, Janny, Paul, Beverly, Rodger, the Copelands, Gawes, Van der Ventels, and more. So many fond memories of the McGraths, Piersons, Andersons, and Walkers, as well as Lara, Tessa, Julie, Robbie, Lucy, Halligan twins, and Daniel. There are the O’Donnells, Kyles, Grays, Paynes, Townsends, Pakis, Pauls, Nealls, Spicers, Paikeas, and dear Ms. Betty, Gayna, and Glenys. Words like “love” and “family” just don’t seem strong enough for Michelle, Janette, Sophie, Carolyn, Nona, Ma, and their families. And what more shall I say? For time would fail me to tell of the Pipers, Fowells, Blackmans, Jensens, Fentons, Van Kuyks, Basons, Stanfords, Banks, Whitakers, Cranstons, Cammocks, not to mention the Parrs, Cumings, Leotas, Timotis, Heathers, Hodgmans, Hansells, Woodrows, De Freres, ad infinitum.

What's the Point?

     With a sizeable lump in my throat as I write these words, I’m trying to make a point. I’m pretty sure I’m not the only missionary who feels this way, and I’m almost certain that the apostle Paul could relate. He confesses, “what comes upon me daily: my deep concern for all the churches” (2 Cor. 11:28), and his prayer life bears resounding testimony to this (Rom. 1:9; Eph. 1:16; Phil. 1:3-4; 1 Thess. 1:2; 3:10). Just read the last three verses of Acts 20 or the first chapter of Philippians, and you will have some idea of the intimate connection he shared with these people. In the final chapter of Romans, after mentioning no less than 35 individuals by name, you get the impression that Paul could have easily continued to list a multitude of others had he not reached the end of the papyrus scroll.

     Throughout his letters the apostle makes numerous references to the Roman provinces of Macedonia, Achaia, Asia, and Galatia.¹ I can pretty much guarantee that in every reference he is recalling the names and faces and stories of those he dearly loved in these places. When he speaks of Macedonia (1 Cor. 16:5), it is not the provincial or geographical locality that interests or concerns him, but the Macedonians themselves (2 Cor. 9:2, 4) and the churches of Macedonia in particular (2 Cor. 8:1). These congregations were comprised of individuals whom Paul knew personally and cared for deeply.

Paul's Recollections

     Macedonia incorporated the cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea. For Paul, Philippi meant Lydia and her household, the local jailer and his family, a slave girl, Epaphroditus, Euodia, Syntyche, and Clement.² Other Macedonian friends were Jason, Gaius, Aristarchus, Secundus, and Sopater.³ When the apostle writes of Asia, he has in mind fellow-Christians in Ephesus, including Tychicus, Trophimus, Onesiphorus’ family, and at times Timothy, Aquila and Priscilla.⁴ Elsewhere in the region he was mindful of Epaphras, Onesimus, Archippus, Philemon, Apphia, Nymphas, Carpus, and Eutychus.⁵

     Galatia was the home of Lois, Eunice, Timothy, Gaius of Derbe, and Crescens.⁶ Achaia is where Paul had developed a close bond with Crispus and Stephanas and their respective households, Sosthenes, hospitable Gaius, Fortunatus, Achaicus, Erastus, Quartus, Dionysius, Damaris, and servant-minded Phoebe.⁷ And there were many other places and many other persons firmly embedded in the apostle’s heart, though not enough ink and papyrus and time to record them all. 

A Missionary's Perspective

     Reading the New Testament through the eyes of a missionary makes a big difference. Potentially boring geographical details take on new life and meaning as one recognizes the precious souls these places represent. Providing everlasting significance to our sometimes underappreciated maps and geography studies is the simple reminder that the Macedonians had names.⁸ “For God so loved the world …” 

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Macedonia (Rom. 15:26; 1 Cor. 16:5; 2 Cor. 1:16; 2:13; 7:5; 8:1; 9:2, 4; 11:9; Phil. 4:15; 1 Thess. 1:7, 8; 4:10; 1 Tim. 1:3; cf. Acts 16:10; 19:21; 20:1, 3); Achaia (Rom. 15:26; 16:5 [KJV]; 1 Cor. 16:15; 2 Cor. 1:1; 9:2; 11:10; 1 Thess. 1:7, 8; cf. Acts 18:12, 27; 19:21); Asia (Rom. 16:5 [ESV]; 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Cor. 1:8; cf. Acts 19:10, 22, 26; 20:4, 16, 18); Galatia (1 Cor. 16:1; Gal. 1:2; 2 Tim. 4:10; cf. Acts 16:6; 18:23). We could also add Cilicia and Syria (Gal. 1:21; cf. Acts 15:41; 18:18; 21:3, 39; 22:3; 23:34), Judea (Rom. 15:31; 2 Cor. 1:16; Gal. 1:22; 1 Thess. 2:14; cf. Acts 26:20), and even Rome (Rom. 1:7; cf. Acts 19:21; 28:16; 2 Tim. 1:17).

     ² Acts 16:14-16, 27-34; Philippians 2:25; 4:2, 3.

     ³ Acts 17:5-9; 19:29; 20:4; cf. Acts 27:2; Col. 4:10; Philem. 24. It is possible that Sopater of Acts 20:4 is Sosipater of Rom. 16:21.

     ⁴ Acts 18:18-26; 20:4; 21:29; 1 Tim. 1:3; 2 Tim. 4:12, 13, 19, 20.

     ⁵ Acts 20:9; Col. 1:7; 4:9, 12, 15, 17; Philem. 1. According to Rom. 16:5 in the Alexandrian Greek text and the Latin Vulgate, Epaenetus was among the earliest converts in Asia; cf. ESV, HCSB, ISV, N/ASV, NIV, N/RSV.

     ⁶ Acts 16:1; 20:4; 2 Timothy 1:5; 4:10.

     ⁷ Acts 17:34; 18:8, 17; Rom. 16:1, 23; 1 Cor. 1:1, 14, 16; 16:17; 2 Tim. 4:20. According to Rom. 16:5 in the Byzantine Greek text, Epaenetus was among the earliest converts in Achaia and thus conceivably a member of Stephanus’ household (1 Cor. 16:15); cf. N/KJV, RAV.

     ⁸ Wayne Stiles observes: “Those of us who seek to understand the meaning of the Bible strongly believe in interpreting a passage in its context. But context is more than words. When one reads the Bible, it becomes clear how geography is the stage on which the redemptive narrative takes place” (“What Biblical Geography Can Do for Your Spiritual Life,” <Link>).

Related Posts: The 1st Missionary Journey, Around the World in Three Decades, Romans 16

Image credit: Claude Vignon’s St. Paul the Apostle, <http://www.copia-di-arte.com/kunst/claude_vignon/paul_apostle_alg155432_hi.jpg>.