When was the Book of Revelation Written? (Part 2 of 2)

Emperor Worship

Christians in the book of Revelation were being pressured to worship the secular ruling power (13:4, 15-16; 14:9-11; 15:2; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4). The seeds of emperor worship were to some degree evident in Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Caligula, but it was not until Domitian that the Imperial Cult was enforced.

When Domitian revived the Imperial Cult, he required his subjects to address him as dominus et dues noster (“our lord and god”).¹ The first Imperial Cult temple in Ephesus was established in the year 89 under Domitian’s rule. In fact, it was during this period that “in some areas – especially in Asia Minor – governors and other local officials demanded public participation in the cult as evidence of citizens’ loyalty and patriotism.”²

Condition of the Churches 

A Christian named Antipas had already suffered martyrdom in Pergamum (2:13) and members of the church at Smyrna were soon to face imprisonment and potentially the death penalty (2:10). Spiritual stagnation was a problem in many of the Asian congregations (2:4, 5; 3:1-3, 15-17), and the church of Laodicea was wealthy at the time (3:17). These conditions are more conducive to the period of Domitian’s reign.

If Revelation had been written during Nero’s reign (54-68) and prior to the Jewish war that led to Jerusalem’s destruction (66-70), it approximates the time period of Paul’s letters to Timothy (also sent to Ephesus). But the respective situations addressed by John and by Paul are very different. 

o   To Ephesus of Paul’s day: charge some not to teach any other doctrine (1 Tim. 1:3-4; 6:3-5); to Ephesus of John’s day: you are standing against evil, false apostles, and deeds of the Nicolaitans (Rev. 2:1-7). 

o   To Ephesus of Paul’s day: pray “for kings and all in authority, that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life” (1 Tim. 2:1-2);³  to Ephesus of John’s day: governing authorities are disrupting our quiet and peaceable life (Rev. 1:9; 17:1-6; 18:21-24; 19:1-2; 20:4). 

o   To Ephesus of Paul’s day: perilous times are coming (2 Tim. 3:1); to Ephesus of John’s day: perilous times are here (Rev. 1:9; 6:9-11). 

o   To Ephesus of Paul’s day: “all desiring to live godly in Christ Jesus will be persecuted [future tense]” (2 Tim. 3:12); to Ephesus of John’s day: persecution is now happening and will get worse (Rev. 1:9; 6:9-11; 16:6; 17:6; 20:4). 

o   To Ephesus of Paul’s day: “There will be a time [in the future] they will not endure sound teaching …” (2 Tim. 4:3a); to Ephesus of John’s day: you are resisting false teachings and practices (Rev. 2:1-7). 

o   To Ephesus of Paul’s day: only “some” [τινες] have turned away from apostolic instruction and purity of love [ἀγάπη] (1 Tim. 1:5-6); to Ephesus of John’s day: you (collectively) have abandoned your first love [ἀγάπη] (Rev. 2:4). 

At the end of 2 Timothy, Paul names seventeen coworkers that would have been known by Timothy and the Ephesian brethren, but he does not mention John. Polycarp of Smyrna (69-155) was personally acquainted with John⁴ but knew of Paul only through Paul’s writings. In Polycarp’s Letter to the Philippians (dated ca. 110), he indicates that when Paul wrote his letter to the Philippi saints around 62, the church did not even exist in Smyrna as it did later in John’s day (11.3).

Laodicea was destroyed by an earthquake in 60 (cf. Tacitus, Annals 14.26-27), and a couple of years later, when Paul wrote his letter to the Colossians, the nearby Laodicea church appears to have been spiritually healthy and thriving (Col. 2:1-2; 4:13-16). But by the time Revelation was written, the Christians in Laodicea were financially prosperous with no financial needs, while spiritually lukewarm and in danger of divine expulsion (Rev. 3:14-22).

The Temple of God

John is called upon to measure “the temple of God and the altar and worshipers,” while the “holy city” is trampled for “forty-two months” (Rev. 11:1-2). If this is taken as a reference to the literal Jewish temple in Jerusalem, a date before mid-70 would be implied. However, since the book of Revelation is filled with signs and symbols, the most natural interpretation of this passage is metaphoric, not literal (note 3:12; cf. 1 Cor. 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor. 6:16; Eph. 2:21). If the physical temple in Jerusalem was still standing and was to be measured by John, how could he have accomplished this while banished on an island in the Aegean Sea over 600 miles away? Moreover, how else could worshipers be “measured” other than spiritually? This is a vision of the future. In the sixth century BC, when Ezekiel saw his vision of the temple being measured (Ezek. 40:1–42:20), the literal temple and city had already been destroyed by the Babylonians fourteen years earlier (Ezek. 40:1).

The Succession of Kings

In Revelation 17:9-11 eight kings are mentioned, and the one who appears to have been reigning at the time of writing was number six. If this passage is taken literally and the succession of kings begins with the first recognized emperor, an earlier date is then suggested. However, this argument is not decisive. Are the kings in this vision past, present, or future? Is the count to begin with Romulus (the first king), Julius Caesar (the first dictator), Augustus (the first emperor), or Caligula (the first persecutor)? Should the comparatively insignificant rulers, who were in power for only brief periods (68-69), be counted or not? [Note: Suetonius included Julius Caesar, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius in his Lives of the Caesars]. Should the respective numbers be interpreted literally or symbolically? Whatever position one wishes to take, it can be made to fit.

If the kings represent kingdoms (cf. Dan. 7:17, 23), this could be an overview of (1) Babylonian; (2) Medo-Persian; (3) Grecian, followed by four smaller kingdoms into which Alexander’s empire divided: (4) Macedon-Greece, (5) Pergamon-Asia Minor, (6) Ptolemaic-Egypt, (7) Seleucid-Syria; then (8) Rome. If Roman emperors: (1) Augustus (30 BC–AD 14); (2) Tiberius (14-37); (3) Caligula (37-41); (4) Claudius (41-54); (5) Nero (54-68); (a) Galba (7 months); (b) Otho (3 months); (c) Vitellius (8 months); (6) Vespasian (69-79); (7) Titus (79-81); and (8) Domitian (81-96).⁵

If the numbers are used symbolically, “seven kings” represent the totality of Roman emperors, the sixth indicates the empire has not yet reached its consummation (note 666 in 13:17-18),⁶ thus seven (completion) is “not yet come,” and eight (a divine number beyond perfection) represents a regime that parodies Christ as the supreme ruler of God’s kingdom (cp. 1:8; 17:8).⁷

CONCLUSION

Internal evidence places the most probable context of Revelation toward the end of the reign of Domitian, 95-96. This conclusion is supported by the weight of early testimonies,⁸ and the vast majority of modern scholars across the wide range of theological perspectives concurs. 

 

Why does it matter? The age-old promise of Christ’s return and future judgment offers reassurance to believers and sustains hope (Acts 23:6; 24:15; 26:6-8; 2 Cor. 4:14; Phil. 3:10-11; 1 John 3:2-3), “awaiting the blessed hope and appearing of the glory of our great God and Savior, Christ Jesus” (Tit. 2:13). Teaching otherwise, claiming it has already happened (hyper-preterism compelled to reject the Domitianic date), causes unnecessary apprehension and discord (2 Thess. 2:1-2; 2 Tim. 2:15-18) and counters the persistent admonition to be prepared, watchful, and alert (Matt. 24:36, 44; 1 Thess. 1:10; 5:1-11; 2 Pet. 3:10-18). 

May we find comfort and motivation in the Lord’s abiding promise: “The one overcoming will thus be clothed in white garments, and I will not wipe out his name from the book of life, and I will confess his name before my Father and before his angels” (Rev. 3:5).

When was the Book of Revelation Written? (Part 1 of 2)

Introduction

John wrote from the Mediterranean island of Patmos (Rev. 1:9), a rugged, rocky island about 40 miles (24 kms) southwest of Ephesus in the Aegean Sea, used by the Romans as a place of exile (see Pliny, Natural History 4.23). The document was written to the seven churches of the Roman province of Asia in the cities of Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea (1:4, 11; 2:1–3:22).

Why does it matter when the book was written? It claims to be a book of prophecy  (1:1, 3, 11, 19; 22:6-10, 16, 18-20), foretelling future events, particularly “things to happen quickly” (1:1; cf. v. 19) [Unless noted otherwise, scripture quotations are the author's own translation]. The typical preterist proposal is that the Jewish War (66-70) fulfilled most if not all of these predictions. Therefore, in order for full-preterism to sustain itself, the book of Revelation must date before Jerusalem’s destruction in the summer of 70, and as predictive prophecy, somewhat earlier. For eschatological futurists, it does not really matter other than responding to false claims.¹

The two main proposals for dating Revelation center on the respective reigns of Nero (54-68) and Domitian (81-96). Nero began his reign at age 16 when his adopted father Claudius died 13th October 54, then Nero committed suicide 9th June 68 by stabbing himself in the throat at age 31. Domitian, the month before his 30th birthday, was inaugurated emperor 14th September 81, the day after his brother Titus died of illness, and Domitian was assassinated 18th September 96, stabbed to death by assailants at age 44.²

External Evidence

Irenaeus (ca. 130-202) was originally from Smyrna in the province of Asia, the location of one of the seven churches of Revelation. He was a disciple of Polycarp, also from Smyrna, who was discipled by the apostle John himself.³ Irenaeus’ literary work was originally in Greek under the title Ἔλεγχος καὶ ἀνατροπὴ τῆς ψευδωνύμου γνώσεως (“On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis”), written around 180. It has been preserved in Latin translation under the title Adversus haereses (“Against Heresies”). In book 5, Irenaeus devotes chap. 30 to the number of the beast in Rev. 13:18, which Eusebius (ca. 260-339) has preserved in the original Greek in his Ecclesiastical History (3.18.1-3; 5.8.6). Eusebius reports: “In this persecution … the apostle and evangelist John … condemned to dwell on the island of Patmos. Irenaeus, in his fifth book against heresies [Adv. haer. 5.30.3] … in the above-mentioned revelation of John …. [quote] ‘declared by him who saw [ἑορακότος] the revelation, for it is not long since it was seen [ἑωράθη], but almost in our own generation, at the close of Domitian’s reign’” (Eccl. Hist. 3.18.1-3, trans. C. F. Cruse).

The question is whether Irenaeus’ use of the third person singular verb ἑωράθη is to be understood as masculine (“he was seen”) in reference to John, or neuter (“it was seen”) in reference to what John saw. If the former, nothing can be deduced either way about the dating of Revelation. However, contextually the preceding use of ὁράω (“he saw” - ἑορακότος) concerns what John saw, not John having been seen. In fact, the subject of the chapter is the revelation of John, and the verbal ὁράω is consistently used in Revelation of what John saw (cf. 1:2; 4:1; 5:1-2, 5-6, 11; 6:1-2, 5, 7-8, 12; 7:1-2; 12:1, 3; 17:6; et al.). Irenaeus had already reported that John lived into the reign of Trajan (98-117) (Adv. haer. 2.22.5; 3.3.4; cf. Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.23.3-4), so why point out that he was living at an earlier time? No reputable translation of Irenaeus’ words has rendered this as a reference to John having been seen, and the Latin version is not ambiguous at all. 

The Domitianic date was almost universally accepted throughout most of church history, and nothing in the book of Revelation contradicts it. No other tradition relevant to dating was proposed in the region where the document was originally sent. Significantly later, in the sixth and seventh centuries in different places, other traditions developed but not in Asia Minor.⁴

Internal Evidence

The key pieces of evidence involve (a) persecution of Christians; (b) emperor worship; (c) condition of the churches; (d) the temple of God; (e) succession of kings (7:9-11).

Persecution of Christians

The Christians to whom Revelation is addressed were apparently suffering severe and widespread persecution that would eventually worsen (1:9; 2:10, 13; 3:10; 6:9; 16:6; 17:6; 18:24; 19:2; 20:4). Nero’s persecution is well documented and lasted from mid-64 to mid-68, but it was primarily confined to the city of Rome. In fact, there is no record of a Neronian persecution outside of Rome. 

Is there evidence that Domitian persecuted Christians? No extant secular writings of antiquity explicitly accuse Domitian of widespread hostilities against Christians, leading a number of modern critics to claim it never happened.⁵ Domitian’s persecutions, reportedly most intense near the end of his regime (95-96), are primarily attested by later Christian writers,⁶  although the imposition of emperor worship during this time (see next post) adds more credence to this potential setting than do the alternatives.

Domitian was far less popular than his father Vespasian and brother Titus, who ruled before him. He sought to establish himself as absolute monarch, which ultimately led to his assassination in September 96.⁷ After he was killed, the Senate immediately passed the motion of damnatio memoriae (“condemnation of memory”) to remove him from official accounts.⁸  Accordingly, the silence of secular historians provides no solid basis for what Domitian may or may not have done.

At the time Revelation was composed, John was exiled on the island of Patmos (Rev. 1:9). Nero’s reaction to Christians involved violent executions (Tacitus, Annals 15.44) that purportedly included the deaths of the apostles Paul and Peter.⁹ There is no evidence that Nero ever banished Christians, so if John’s punishment was under his rule, we have to wonder why John was exiled rather than killed? Banishment of alleged dissidents was much more common during Domitian’s reign.¹⁰

Both Tacitus (ca. 56-120) and Suetonius (ca. 69-122) describe Domitian’s final years as a reign of terror, and Clement of Alexandria (ca. 150-215) calls him a “tyrant.”¹¹ Those who opposed Domitian were either exiled or executed and their properties confiscated; the names of at least twenty political foes who were killed by Domitian have been preserved.¹²

Not only did Domitian suppress political opponents, he condemned those charged with the crime of atheism, i.e., rejecting the Roman pantheon, including the Imperial Cult.¹³ Justin Martyr wrote, “Hence are we called atheists. And we confess that we are atheists, so far as gods of this sort are concerned, but not with respect to the most true God …” (I Apology 6, trans. P. Schaff). In 110 Pliny the Younger examined those charged with being Christians in Asia Minor, some of whom had recanted their faith two decades earlier (Epistles 10.96.6), implying oppression during Domitian’s reign. 

Eusebius (ca. 260-399) more specifically reports the persecutions and martyrdoms of Christians in Domitian’s fifteenth year (96), having been documented by non-Christian writers known to Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. 3.18.4). Melito of Sardis (ca.100-180) speaks of persecutions in Asia in his day, then recounts Nero and Domitian having been “stimulated by certain malicious persons, showed a disposition to slander our faith” (Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 4.26.3-9, trans. C. F. Cruse). Tertullian (ca. 155-220) compares Domitian’s cruelty, before he allegedly eased off, to what Nero had done to Christians (Apol. 5.4; cf. Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.20.7-9). Clement of Rome, a contemporary of Domitian, refers to “sudden and repeated misfortunes and calamities that have befallen us” (I Clement 1.1, trans. F. J. A. Hort). Paulus Orosius (ca. 375-420) later reported that Domitian issued edicts for a general and cruel persecution (Hist. adv. pag. 7.10.5). 

In our next post we will consider other evidences relevant to the dating of Revelation.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See K. L. Moore, “Preterism: What’s the Big Deal?” (Part 1), Moore Perspective (3 June 2020), <Link>.

     ² Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: Nero 6.49, 57; Domitian 14.16.

     ³ Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 5.20.5-6; Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 3.3.4; Tertullian, De praes. haer. 32.2. 

     ⁴ “The first clear, accepted, unambiguous witness to the Neronic date is a one-line superscription in two Syriac versions of the New Testament in the sixth and seventh centuries. If the Neronic date were the original date of Revelation, one would expect a witness to this fact in Asia Minor, where the book of Revelation originated, and a witness much earlier than the sixth century” (M. Hitchcock, “A Defense of the Domitianic Date of the Book of Revelation,” Dissertation: Dallas Theological Seminary [Dec. 2005] 74).

     ⁵ E.g., F. G. Downing, “Pliny’s Prosecution of Christians,” JSNT 34 (1988): 105-123; E. T. Merrill, Essays in Early Christian History 148-73.

     ⁶ See Eusebius (ca. 260-339), Eccl. Hist. 3.18.4; Sulpicius Severus (ca. 363-425), Chronicle 2.31; Paulus Orosius (ca. 375-420), Book 7 of Historiarum lib. Vii, adv. paganos (“History Against the Pagans”). Even though the most definitive information comes from Orosius in the year 417, his history is substantially based on the much earlier works of Justin and Eutropius (see M’Clintock and Strong 7:455-56), and he also had access to other documentation that is no longer extant.

     ⁷ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: Domitian 14.16.

     ⁸ B. W. Jones, The Emperor Domitian 160.

     ⁹ Cf. I Clement 5.4-5; Tertullian, De praes. haer. 36.3; Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 2.25.5-8 (citing second-century Dionysius as added confirmation).

     ¹⁰ Cassius Dio, Roman History 67.3, 13, 14; Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.20.7-8; 3.32.1; Jerome, Adv. Jovinianum 1.26; Victorinus, Comm. Apocalypse 10.11.

     ¹¹ Tacitus, Agricola 45; Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: Domitian 8.10; Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.23.5-19.

     ¹² R. E. Brown, Introduction to the NT 806; B. W. Jones, The Emperor Domitian 169, 182-88; cf. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: Domitian 21.

     ¹³ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: Domitian 8.15; Cassius Dio, Roman History 67.14.2.

*Prepared for the 2024 FHU Lectures.

Related Posts: When was Revelation Written (Part 2), Introducing the Book of Revelation (Part 1), Ancient Dating Systems

Image credit: https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/1208739/view/emperor-nero-statue- and https://www.thecollector.com/misjudged-roman-emperors/

Tackling the Interpretive Challenges of Revelation 20

The Thousand Years 

The “thousand years” of Rev. 20:2-7 is no more literal than the other symbols in the text, such as the key, bottomless pit, chain, dragon, beast, etc. Since Revelation makes frequent use of figurative language,¹ there is no reason to assume that the “thousand years” was meant in a literal sense. In fact, the number 1000 is a commonly used symbolic figure in scripture. 

Job affirms that a person cannot answer God “one time out of a thousand” (Job 9:3). Rather than limiting God, this hyperbolic comparison simply means that humans are totally incapable of contending with him. The psalmist acknowledges that “the cattle on a thousand hills” belong to God (Psa. 50:10). This is not to say that the cattle on more than a thousand hills do not belong to him, rather he owns the indefinite/complete number of cattle. To God “a thousand years” are like a single day (Psa. 90:4). To take this literally would mean that he can, to some degree, be bound by human time. But since God is eternal (Deut. 33:27), this is simply a metaphoric way of saying that time has no relevance to him. While “ten days” symbolizes a relatively short, yet complete, period of time from a human perspective (cf. Rev. 2:10), “a thousand years” symbolizes a relatively long and complete period. As a symbol it does not specify an exact number.

Since Christ began his reign in the first century AD (Matt. 28:18; Acts 2:30-36; 1 Pet. 3:22), and Christians are now reigning as priestly servants with Christ in a spiritual sense (Rom. 5:17; 1 Pet. 2:5-9), and Christ’s reign certainly did not end in AD 1033, the “one thousand years” of Rev. 20 would then refer, not to linear time per se, but to the long, indefinite period of Christ’s reign in his spiritual kingdom—the church (John 18:36-37; Col. 1:13). It connotes an extended period of completion of God’s work on earth, serving as a symbol of ultimate victory. When Jesus returns, he will deliver the kingdom to the Father (1 Cor. 15:23-24).

The Binding and Release of Satan 

The chapter begins with a past event (as in 12:1-5) and ends with a future event. Note the symbols: the “key” symbolizing power to bind or loose (cf. Matt. 16:19; Rev. 1:18); the “chain” symbolizing whatever restricts the power of Satan; the “bottomless pit” symbolizing that which prevents the devil from deceiving and controlling the nations as he did before he was “bound.” Satan was bound and continues to be restricted by the power of the gospel (1 John 3:8; Heb. 2:14-15; Rom. 6:9-18; Jas. 4:7; Eph. 4:8). This does not, however, render him completely inactive (cf. 1 Pet. 5:8). Those who do not submit to or remain in the teaching of Christ essentially walk away from divine protection and into the devil’s grasp (2 Thess. 2:9-12). A vicious dog may be bound on a chain, locked behind a fence, and sealed with the warning: “Beware of Dog.” But the person who wanders into the dog’s domain will suffer the consequences.

Some have suggested the releasing of Satan “for a little while” may indicate a time when either the church will be hindered, by persecution or government restrictions, from freely preaching the gospel, or the gospel may lose its influence because of hardened hearts and rejection. Neither interpretation, however, is biblically necessitated.

The “little while” may be nothing more than the time it takes for all the events of the Lord’s return to transpire, including the resurrection of the dead and bodily transformation of the righteous snatched away from the earth (1 Thess. 4:15-18). These are the ones who have been proclaiming, obeying, and defending the gospel and thus restricting the devil’s work. This momentary release of Satan, concurrent with the events of Christ’s return, will happen “in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye” (1 Cor. 15:52). Jesus is coming with flaming fire and judgment, at which time the enigmatic “man of lawlessness” (personification of false religion as the work of Satan) will be revealed but immediately consumed by the Lord’s fiery vengeance (2 Thess. 1:7–2:10).²

Conclusion

The rest of Rev. 20 (vv. 11-15) continues with a vivid scene of God’s victory and judgment. Despite the challenging details of this chapter’s apocalyptic imagery, in the end the Lord’s people are victorious and our spiritual enemies are defeated and ultimately face divine retribution.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See K. L. Moore, “Confused By the Book of Revelation?,” Moore Perspective (3 Nov. 2021), <Link>.

     ² See K. L. Moore, “The Man of Lawlessness (Part 1),” Moore Perspective (12 July 2017), <Link>.

Related Posts: Introducing the Book of Revelation (Part 3), The Kingdom of God (Part 1) 

 

Image credit: https://practicallyknowntheology.com/2020/06/29/amillennialism-and-the-binding-of-satan/

Measuring the Heavenly City in Revelation 21:16?

In Revelation 21 the heavenly city is measured with a gold reed: “The city lies foursquare [‘cubic in shape,’ ISV], its length the same as its width. And he measured the city with his rod, 12,000 stadia. Its length and width and height are equal” (ESV). The term “stadia” is the plural form of the Greek stádion, approx. one-eighth of a Roman mile, or 607 feet, or 185 meters. In modern-day westernized dimensions, 12,000 stadia would equate to around 1,380 miles or nearly 2,221 kilometers.

Since heaven is a spiritual realm infinitely beyond our ability to conceptualize from a purely materialistic perspective, imagery from the physical world has to be used in the highly symbolic book of Revelation to allow some degree of insight into an otherwise inexplicable reality. The symbolism, therefore, should not be taken literally. This includes numbers and measurements.

The size of the city is not calculated in American miles or British kilometers but according to Greek-measurement figures. The number 12,000 is the combination of 12 (symbolizing God’s people, cf. 21:2, 14) x 1000 (representing, from a human vantage point, something extensive, indefinite, yet complete, cf. 20:4, 6). Thus “12,000” describes the heavenly home of God’s people as more than spacious enough to accommodate all the saved (cp. 7:5-8; cf. John 14:2). 

Heaven is not and cannot be a physically literal city with exact measurements of precise distances (1 Kings 8:27; 1 Cor. 15:50; Col. 3:1-2). From an earthly architectural point of view, a square-cube city is nonsensical, and the incredible lengths of the dimensions are mind-boggling. And that’s the point. Heaven cannot be adequately described with earthly concepts or with literal measurements. If the ancients considered the cube as the most perfect of all geometric forms (cf. 1 Kings 6:20), heaven is depicted as a realm of perfect (also enormous) proportions. 

--Kevin L. Moore

 

Related Posts: The New Jerusalem, Beyond Words, The Number 666

 

Image credit: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/838795499328626517/

The Number 666

The number 666 occurs four times in the Bible. In the 10th century BC, Solomon received 666 talents of gold annually (1 Kings 10:14; 2 Chron. 9:13). Four centuries later, among the Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon to the land of Judah, there were 666 from the family of Adonikam (Ezra 2:13). These figures, employed in straightforward historical narratives, are to be taken at face value with no symbolism or underlying meanings intended. However, the same number appearing in the highly symbolic book of Revelation is different. How is it used and what does it mean in Rev. 13:18?¹ 

 

The number “seven” is probably the most recognizable symbolic figure in scripture,²  signifying perfection or divine completeness. The number “six” is therefore short of perfection, and by tripling it (666) the symbol of imperfection and fallibility is intensified. 

 

What it does not mean

 

Contrary to popular opinion, the number 666 does not represent the Antichrist, the devil, or a particular religious or government official in history. Gematria, the assigning of numerical value to letters of the alphabet, has been applied through the years to the number 666 in numerous attempts to identify a specific individual or organization. Results have included Julius Caesar, Nero Caesar, Domitian, Napoleon, Hitler, Catholicism, Protestantism, modern technology, et al. The problem is, different languages are used (Greek, Latin, Hebrew), different values are assigned to each letter, sometimes titles are added and names misspelled to make it fit, resulting in endless possibilities. The entire process is speculative, inexact, and dubious.

 

A contextual approach

 

In Rev. 13:1-10 the sea beast represents the Roman Empire (contextually near the end of the 1st century AD), and the land beast (vv. 11-17) the false religion of the Imperial Cult aligned with the government. Empowered by the dragon (Satan), emperor worship is enforced with violence and sanctions.³ Nevertheless, true “wisdom” and “understanding” assign the number 666 to the conglomerate beast, which “is the number of a man” (v. 18), i.e., imperfect and fallible to the extreme. Despite the exalted claims of deity and mighty displays of power, the ferocious enemy of God’s people (led by “a man” professing to be a god) is far removed from anything truly divine. The cryptic message, hidden to those unfamiliar with the numerical symbolism, was much needed by the late-1st-century persecuted Christians who were tempted to give in to the pressure. Such a reminder offered reassurance and hope.

 

Modern-day application

 

There is nothing inherently sinister about the number 666. No need to avoid it or feel compelled to change an address, license plate, or phone number containing the three digits. On the 16th of October 2020 the Tennessee Department of Health reported 666 new cases of Covid-19.⁴ The exact same figure was reported in South Carolina four days later,⁵ and in North Carolina a couple of months earlier.⁶ The only thing this means is that fewer than 667 and more than 665 new cases were reported.

 

The emblematic message conveyed through this number nearly two millennia ago in Rev. 13:18 is that human beings, earthly governments, false religions, and anti-Christian opponents are fallible and imperfect, irrespective of deceptive appearances and grandiose assertions. God alone is perfect and his word complete and infallible, so trusting and remaining loyal to him is the only way to ensure victory in the end. 

 

“And I saw something like a sea of glass mingled with fire, and those who have the victory over the beast, over his image and over his mark and over the number of his name …” (Rev. 15:2).⁷ Whether or not we ever face the same or similar challenges as our 1st-century brethren in Western Asia Minor, the Lord’s promise still holds true: “Be faithful until death, and I will give you the crown of life” (Rev. 2:10c).

 

--Kevin L. Moore

 

Endnotes:

     ¹ There is a textual variant in Rev. 13:18 wherein some manuscripts record the number 616 (e.g. the 3rd-century P. Oxy. 4499 or P115, and the 5th-century Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus). However, most modern scholars agree with Irenaeus (ca. 130-202), who regarded this number “spurious” and the result of scribal error. Irenaeus reported that in his day the number 666 was “in all the most approved and ancient copies,” confirmed by men who knew the apostle John personally (Adv. Haer. 5.3.1). Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are from the NKJV.

     ² The number “seven” appears in the book of Revelation fifty-four times, alluding to seven churches, spirits, lampstands, stars, angels, seals, horns, eyes, trumpets, thunders, heads, crowns, plagues, bowls, mountains, and kings. The adjective “seventh” occurs five more times, and the amplified figure “seven thousand” once.

     ³ If the “right hand” represents physical activity (cf. Judg. 5:26; Neh. 4:23; Psa. 20:6; 60:5; 74:11; 138:7; Lam. 2:4) and the “forehead” mental faculty (cf. Isa. 48:4; Jer. 3:3; Ezek. 3:7), then receiving the mark, number, and name of the beast would symbolize conspicuous allegiance, both in action and in thinking, to the anti-Christian, pagan, ruling power. 

     ⁴ Caleb Wethington, “Tennessee reports 666 new COVID-19 cases,” ABC (16 Oct. 2020), <Link>.

     ⁵ Staff Reports, “666 new cases of coronavirus reported in SC,” SCNOW (20 Oct. 2020), <Link>.

     ⁶ Annette Weston, “NCDHHS reports 666 new COVID-19 cases,” ABC (10 Aug. 2020), <Link>.

     ⁷ In contrast to the evil beast having arisen out of the tumultuous sea (Rev. 13:1), before God’s throne the sea is calm and clear but mingled with the fire of righteous indignation. Those who gain victory over the beast have “harps of God,” a symbol of jubilation and triumph in contrast to the fall of Rome, where the “sound of harpists, musicians, flutists, and trumpeters shall not be heard in you anymore…” (18:22).

 

Related Posts: Introducing Revelation Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Rev. 13:8, What was Predetermined?, Measuring the Heavenly City

 

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Preterism: What’s the Big Deal? (Part 4 of 4) Concluding Observations

Overly-Simplified, Overly-Complex

The fundamental weakness of hyper-preterism is its overly-simplistic method of interpretation, which creates an overly-complex belief system. When a biblical text does not seem to fit the preterist model, it has to be reinterpreted or spiritualized.¹ When a biblical text does seem to fit, context is sometimes ignored or explained away.² If one has not fully embraced the preterist system, it is extremely difficult to see in the Bible what preterism claims is there. In fact, it has been less than 150 years since this novel eschatological perspective was first introduced.³

Preterists insist theirs is the only “consistent” interpretive model, so much so that consistency of meaning is demanded even when appropriated scriptures are scattered across a variety of literary and historical-cultural settings. Strict preterism fails to appreciate that biblical terminology can be used in a variety of ways with different contextual connotations.⁴ The result of preterist methodology is an overly-simplified, overly-complex, acute imbalance.

A More Balanced Approach

Does the Bible speak of the Lord’s representative “coming”? Yes, but not always. Yahweh came representatively against Babylon via the Medo-Persians (Isa. 13:1-22; 26:21; 27:1). The Father’s presence was represented in his Son (John 14:7-11). Jesus sent the Spirit as a divine representative (John 14:16-18, 23-26; 15:26; 16:7-15). The Lord came in judgment against Jerusalem representatively by the Romans (Joel 1:9-16; Matt. 24:1-34). This does not mean, however, there can be no personal appearance of the Lord in the future, which a number of NT passages seem to affirm (John 14:2-3; Acts 1:9-11; 1 Cor. 15:23-24; Phil. 3:20; 1 Thess. 4:16; 2 Thess. 1:6-10; Heb. 9:28; 1 John 3:2-3; etc.). Why feel the need to force symbolization onto these verses unless there is an underlying agenda one is trying to defend? 

Now and Not Yet

Throughout the NT there is an obvious tension between “now” and “not yet.” Salvation is viewed not only as a past occurrence (Rom. 8:24; Eph. 2:5, 8), but also a present reality (1 Cor. 1:18; 15:2; 2 Cor. 2:15) and a future hope (Rom. 5:9-10; 9:27; 10:9; 1 Cor. 3:15; 5:5). Spiritual life is available right now (John 11:26; 1 Cor. 15:22; 2 Cor. 4:16–5:17), while those experiencing this newness of life still anticipate what is to come (Matt. 5:12; Rom. 8:24-25; Phil. 3:20; 1 Pet. 1:3-7). 

Does the Bible teach initiated eschatology (past), realized eschatology (present), or future eschatology (yet to come)? Yes it does! The long-anticipated arrival of the Messiah to usher in God’s final dispensation was in fact realized with Jesus’ physical presence on earth (Matt. 12:28; Luke 17:20-21) and the formation of his church (Matt. 16:18-19, 28). But it is also “unrealized eschatology” because there is more to come. The messianic kingdom has been inaugurated and is moving toward heavenly consummation (1 Cor. 15:23-26). Biblical eschatology is realized but not fully realized.

Other Timeframe Issues

Based on passages like 1 Cor. 7:29-31; 15:51; and 1 Thess. 4:15, liberal critics have long argued that certain NT writers and early disciples were anticipating in their lifetime the second advent of Christ at the end of the age, but they were wrong. Preterists agree that some biblical texts allude to the imminence of eschatological events, but rather than mistaken the prophecies were fulfilled in a non-literal sense in the summer of AD 70. 

Both of these conclusions, however, do not reflect the broader scope of what the scriptures teach. Even Jesus did not know whether or not his return would be imminent (Mark 13:32). Paul understood that he and his contemporaries may or may not still be living at the Lord’s parousía (cf. 1 Thess. 5:2-3, 10; 1 Cor. 6:14; 2 Cor. 4:14; Phil. 3:11). Although nearness in time was surely possible, it was never definitively affirmed as the only possibility.⁵

Another timeframe issue, upon which preterism stands or falls, is the dating of the book of Revelation. For futurists, it doesn’t matter. But for preterists, the close of the NT canon must have been prior to mid-AD 70 in order for their theory to seem plausible. Internal evidence places the most probable context of Revelation toward the end of the reign of Domitian (AD 95-96), supported by the weight of early testimony.⁶

Does it Really Matter?

The biblical doctrine of the parousía is foundational to the Christian faith (1 Thess. 1:10; 4:14-18). To allege it has already occurred is deceptive (2 Thess. 2:1-3), as well as cancerous, a deviation from the truth, undermining the faith of some (2 Tim. 2:17-18). The future judgment has always been part of the gospel message that provides an incentive to obey (Acts 3:19-21; 10:42; 17:30-31; 24:25; Rom. 2:4-6; 2 Cor. 5:10-11; 2 Thess. 2:5; Heb. 9:27-28; 1 Pet. 4:5; 2 Pet. 3:11, 14). 

The promise of the Lord’s parousía and accompanying experiences gives hope and reassurance to believers (Acts 23:6; 24:15; 26:6-8; 2 Cor. 4:14; Phil. 3:10-11; 1 John 3:2-3), “awaiting the blessed hope and appearing of the glory of our great God and Savior, Christ Jesus” (Tit. 2:13).⁷ Teaching otherwise causes unnecessary apprehension and discord (2 Thess. 2:1-2) and counters the persistent admonition to be prepared, watchful, and alert (Matt. 24:36, 44; 1 Thess. 1:10; 5:1-11; 2 Pet. 3:10-18). Yes, it matters.

-- Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ For example, Matt. 24:36–25:46; 28:18-20; Luke 20:33-36; John 5:25-29; 6:39-44; 12:48; 14:2-3; Acts 1:11; 24:15; 1 Cor. 15:20-28, 35, 42, 52; 2 Cor. 4:14; 5:10-11; Phil. 3:10-11, 20-21; 1 Thess. 2:19; 4:13–5:11; Tit. 2:11-13; Heb. 9:28; 1 John 3:2-3; Rev. 20:11-15.

     ² For example, Matt. 10:23; Acts 17:30-31; 24:25; 1 Thess. 1:9-10; 2 Thess. 1:6-12; 2:1-3; 2 Tim. 2:17-18; 4:18.

     ³ James Stuart Russell, The Parousia: A Critical Inquiry into the New Testament Doctrine of Our Lord’s Second Coming (London: Daldy, Isbister, & Co., 1878). Notwithstanding 1st-century heresies (1 Cor. 15:12; 2 Thess. 2:1-3; 2 Tim. 2:17-18).

    ⁴ For example, while the return of Christ is sometimes referred to as “the day of the Lord” (2 Pet. 3:10), the same expression is used elsewhere in scripture with reference to six other days of the Lord’s judgment. It is a mistake to overlook the historical and literary contexts in which this phrase and comparable expressions are so often used. If the number seven is consistently employed throughout scripture to symbolize completeness, and the AD 70 destruction of Jerusalem was the sixth so-called “day of the Lord,” should we not expect a seventh and final day of the Lord’s judgment? See K. L. Moore, “The Day of the Lord,” Moore Perspective (1 Feb. 2014), <Link>. No doubt adding to the confusion is the fact that the language used is clearly apocalyptic. “A real event is being described, but it is one which cannot be described literally since the direct activity of God cannot be fully comprehended in human language. The biblical writers have therefore to resort to analogy and metaphor, the language of symbol, in order to convey their message” (I. Howard Marshall, 1 and 2 Thessalonians [Vancouver: Regent College, 2002]: 128).

     ⁵ See K. L. Moore, “Anticipating Christ’s Return (Part 1),” Moore Perspective (31 Jan. 2018), <Link>; and “Anticipating Christ’s Return (Part 2),” Moore Perspective (7 Feb. 2018), <Link>.

     ⁶ See K. L. Moore, “Introducing the Book of Revelation (Part 2),” Moore Perspective (14 Nov. 2018), <Link>; “When Was the Book of Revelation Written? (Part 1),” Moore Perspective (12 Feb. 2025), <Link>.

     ⁷ Scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

Addendum: Borrowed from Brian Giselbach -- The Bible's Christ-centered Message: I. Jesus Christ is Coming (Gen. 1:1 - Mal. 4:6); II. Jesus Christ has Come (Matt. 1:1 - Acts 28:31); III. Jesus Christ is Coming Again (Acts 1:9 - Rev. 22:21).

Related Posts: Preterism: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, The Man of Lawlessness (Part 1)

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