Historical Background of the New Testament (Part 2): to the 2nd Century BC

The Greek Incursion 

By 338 BC Philip II of Macedon had successfully unified the city-states of mainland Greece, and his son Alexander III (a.k.a. “the Great”) succeeded him as ruler in 336 BC. Most of Alexander’s reign involved a military campaign eastward, absorbing the entire Persian Empire as he conquered territories from Greece to India, including Syria, Judea, and Egypt. He established one of the largest empires of the ancient world, resulting in Greek language, culture, literature, philosophy, and science saturating the conquered lands.

After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the Empire was ultimately divided into four smaller Hellenistic kingdoms (cf. Dan. 8:21-22; 11:3-4): (1) the Macedonian kingdom of Greece was controlled by the dynasty of General Antigonus I; (2) the Pergamon kingdom of Asia Minor was founded by General Lysimachus and his lieutenant Philetaerus; (3) the Seleucid kingdom of Syria and other near-eastern territories was founded by Seleucus I Nicator (“conqueror”); and (4) the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt was founded by Ptolemy I Soter (“savior”).¹ The latter two are most relevant to the background of the New Testament (cf. Dan. 11:5-28).

Judea – the home base of nationalistic Judaism, having surrendered to Alexander’s forces in 332 BC – was subjected to the rule of the Ptolemies to the south until 198 BC; then the Seleucids to the north gained control and dominated the Jews for another half century. During these Hellenistic regimes the Jews were generally allowed to maintain their customs and practice their religion. Judea was regarded as a temple-state, with the Jewish high priest of the family of Zadok² serving as the local authority answerable to the ruling power. But in 175 BC Onias III was deposed from the high-priesthood and replaced by his brother Jason,³ who had offered Seleucid king Antiochus IV⁴ a bribe and promised to intensify the Hellenization of Judea. Then in 171 BC Jason was supplanted by Menelaus (not of the Zadok family),⁵ who had offered a larger bribe to Antiochus with assurance of an even greater push for Hellenization. Meanwhile to the west the power of Rome was increasing and expanding. 

The more orthodox Jews, called Hasidim (“pious ones”), resisted the Hellenizing advances. An attempt was made to remove Menelaus from the high-priesthood and reinstate Jason, which the Seleucids regarded as insurrection. Antiochus led his troops against Jerusalem around 167 BC, reportedly pillaging the city and the temple, slaughtering 40,000 women, children, and men (including Jason), and selling another 40,000 into slavery. He banned the practice of the Jewish religion and set up an image of Zeus in his own likeness, to whom he dedicated the temple. He outlawed the scriptures and circumcision and ordered that pigs be sacrificed on the temple’s altar (Josephus, War 1.1.1-2; 2 Macc. 5:11-14). This fulfilled the prophecy of Dan. 8:9-13; 11:21-39 involving “the abomination of desolation,” which would be repeated by the Romans a couple of centuries later (Dan. 9:24-27; 12:11; cf. Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14; Luke 21:20). Antiochus held control of the temple for about three years (167-164 BC). This sparked the Maccabean revolt, although some historians characterize it as a civil war between conservative Jews and Hellenizing Jews, with Antiochus siding with the latter.

The Maccabean Revolt

Armed resistance against the Seleucid oppressors was instigated by Mattathias, a priest of the Hasmonean family,⁶ with his five sons: Johanan [John], Simeon [Simon], Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah [Judas]. When Mattathias died about 166 BC, Judas took his place as leader and became known as Judas Maccabeus (the “Hammer”). He proved to be a formidable leader in guerrila warfare and gained victories in successive clashes with Seleucid troops. Antiochus was preoccupied elsewhere, so he decided to appease the Judeans and lift the ban on Jewish religion. The temple was then restored and reconsecrated in 164 BC, the commemoration of which has been celebrated annually as the feast of Hanukkah, the Hebrew word for “dedication” (cf. John 10:22), a.k.a. “Festival of Lights” (see Josephus, Ant. 12.7.7; 1 Macc. 4:36-59; 2 Macc. 1:18-36; 10:1-8). The fight for independence was seemingly bolstered by a treaty formed with the Romans in 161 BC (secured by Judas’ brother Jonathan), but the stage was set for future oppression and subjugation.

The Hasmoneans were not satisfied with Antiochus’ limited concession and continued the fight for more than two decades until Seleucid control was completely broken and Jewish sovereignty restored in 142 BC under the leadership of Simon, the last surviving son of Mattathias. For the first time in over four centuries the Jews now enjoyed political independence. With no suitable candidate of the Zadok family available,⁷ Simon was appointed high priest “until a trustworthy prophet should arise” (1 Macc. 13:14; 14:41), and his descendants occupied this position for over a hundred years.

Despite this victory, however, Judaism was divided into three disputing factions: (1) the Hasmoneans (later known as Sadduceees, Matt. 22:23; Acts 4:1), who controlled the high-priesthood and temple and held the power in Jerusalem; (2) the Hasidim (later known as Pharisees, Matt. 5:20; 9:11), who campaigned for religious purity; and (3) the Hellenized Jews (later known as Hellenists, Acts 6:1; 9:29), who embraced Greek culture. 

The Hasmonean dynasty continued to increase in power, wealth, and territory. Judas Maccabeus had conquered Idumea to the south in 163 BC, and it was reclaimed in 125 BC by Simon’s son John Hyrcanus (high priest from 134 to 104 BC), who forced the Idumeans to convert to Judaism. John Hyrcanus’ son Judah Aristobulus was the first to be recognized as “king” (Josephus, Ant. 13.11.1; War 1.3.1). Also secured and subjugated were Greek cities like Damascus to the northeast and other Decapolis communities to the east.⁸

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Cleopatra VII Philopator (ca. 69-30 BC) was a descendent of Ptolomy I and the last monarch of the Ptolemaic kingdom. After her death, Egypt became a province of Rome.

     ² 1 Kings 1:34-45; 2:35; 1 Chron. 6:8; 16:39; 24:3, 6; 27:17; 29:22; 2 Chron. 31:10; Neh. 11:11; Ezek. 40:46; 43:19; 44:15; 48:11.

     ³ Before adopting the Greek name Jason, he was known by the Jewish name Yeshua (Josephus, Ant. 12.5).

     ⁴ Mathradates assumed the name Antiochus, after his father Antiochus III the Great, when he became ruler of the Seleucid kingdom; one of the titles he adopted was Epiphanes, i.e., theòs epiphanies, meaning “god manifest.” Antiochus IV Epiphanes ruled the Seleucids from 175 BC until his death in 164 BC.

    ⁵ According to 2 Maccabees Menelaus was of the tribe of Benjamin, but Josephus gives conflicting information.

    ⁶ A descendent of Asamoneus through Joiarib, Simeon, and John (Josephus, Ant. 6.6.1); possibly traced back to Phinehas, Israel’s third high priest (1 Macc. 2:26; cf. Num. 25:7-13; Judg. 20:28; Ezra 7:1-5)?

     ⁷ After Onias III was deposed from the high-priesthood (and later murdered on the order of Antiochus-appointee Menelaus), his son Onias IV moved to Egypt and founded a new temple at Leontopolis, which functioned until Vespasian forced its discontinuance in AD 70 in conjunction with the Jerusalem temple’s destruction.

     ⁸ The Decapolis (League of Ten Cities) was comprised of Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, Raphana, Canatha, Damascus, Philadelphia, and Galasa (Pliny, Natural History 5.16). On the ministry of Jesus in this region, see Matt. 4:25; 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; 7:31-37; Luke 8:26-39. Jews from Arabia (the Nabataean Kingdom), which at times incorporated some or all of the Decapolis, were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11). Later Saul of Tarsus was converted in Damascus and then spent three years in the general vicinity (Acts 9:1-25; Gal. 1:17-18).

Related Posts: Historical Background NT Part 1, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6

Image credit: https://sydney.edu.au/arts/schools/school-of-philosophical-and-historical-inquiry/department-of-classics-and-ancient-history.html

The Ancient City of Corinth

     Ancient Corinth was built at the foot of the large hill of Acrocorinth on the narrow isthmus connecting the Peloponnesus peninsula with the mainland of Greece. The city was strategically located, linking the principal land route between East and West, while several sea lanes converged on its two harbors. Its crowning era as a Greek city-state was from the 8th century BC until its destruction by the Romans in 146 BC.

     Rome rebuilt and repopulated Corinth in 44 BC, designating it the capital of the Roman province of Achaia and the seat of the Roman proconsul. The city was also a center of industry and commerce, with a socially, economically, religiously, and culturally diverse populace. It appears to have been one of the larger municipalities of Roman Greece, with an estimated 30,000 to 50,000 urban residents and a rural population of approximately 40,000 to 60,000.¹

     The apostle Paul arrived in Corinth from Athens around autumn of 50. If he traveled by land, he would have approached the capital from the north on the Lechaion road. To the left of the pavement lined with walkways, porticos, and administrative buildings was the public fountain of Peirene, a potential site for baptizing the first converts (Acts 18:8; 1 Cor 1:14-16), and the nearby Jewish synagogue was a good place to start (Acts 18:4, 7).² Further along was the agora (marketplace), where a prominent space was occupied by the marble-covered bema (elevated platform) upon which Paul would later stand accused before the proconsul Gallio (Acts 18:12-16). The numerous shops in the vicinity would have provided a suitable location for manufacturing and/or selling tents (Acts 18:2-3), while pagan temples and shrines permeated the city’s landscape (1 Cor 8:1-10; 10:14).

     The apostle labored diligently with Aquila, Priscilla, Silas and Timothy until spring of 52, leaving behind an established Christian community (Acts 18:1-18). Subsequently Gaius is referenced as the host of “the whole church” (Rom 16:23 ESV), an apparent allusion to the assemblies in his home. A typical upper class Roman-style house was centered around a columned courtyard with an open room (atrium), large enough to accommodate about 30 to 50 people.

     Since initiating his second missionary campaign, Paul had encountered violent opposition and expulsion from every Macedonian community he targeted. Venturing south into the province of Achaia, he faced a general lack of receptivity in Athens as his eager attempts were largely met with amusement and disregard. Moving on to Corinth, although dejected and fearful (Acts 18:9-10; 1 Cor 2:3), his resolve remained intact. Eighteen months of sowing the gospel seed with extensive follow up resulted in the Lord of the harvest reaping a bounty of souls (1 Cor 3:6-9). In the most unlikely of places there now existed “the church of God that is at Corinth, with all the saints who are in the whole of Achaia” (2 Cor 1:1).

     Nearly two millennia later the commission and the One who gave it remain unchanged. And there is still no scarcity of unlikely places.

-- Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Available evidence does not corroborate the inflated estimates of up to half a million or more.

     ² In 1898 along the Lechaion road the limestone lintel of the doorway of Corinth’s synagogue was discovered near the entrance to the forum.

Works Consulted:

Aune, David E. The New Testament in Its Literary Environment. LEC. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987.  

Fee, Gordon D. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

Malherbe, Abraham J. Social Aspects of Early Christianity. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983.

Moore, Kevin L. A Critical Introduction to the New Testament: Study and Lecture Notes. Henderson, TN: Hester, 2009.

Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology. 3rd ed. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 2002.

Willet, Rinse. “Whirlwind of Numbers: Demographic Experiments for Roman Corinth,” AncSoc 42 (2012): 127-58.

*First appearing in the Freed-Hardeman University Graduate School of Theology newsletter, Reflections on Theology and Ministry 1:3 (1 Dec. 2015): 2-4.

Related Posts: Recent Visit to the Bible Lands, My Family's Worship in Corinth

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My Recent Visit to the Bible Lands

     This is a brief summary of the recent trip my wife and I made to Greece and Israel with the Freed-Hardeman University program, The Bible Lands Tour (29 December 2014 – 8 January 2015): a group of 20 pilgrims led by our capable guides Mark and Dana Blackwelder.

     In Athens we visited the Acropolis, a high rocky hill upon which the remains of several ancient structures stand, including the Parthenon – the old temple of the city’s patron goddess Athena. When the apostle Paul was in Athens over 19 centuries earlier, “his spirit was provoked within him when he saw that the city was given over to idols” (Acts 17:16). From atop the Acropolis, viewing the city’s myriad (tightly compacted) buildings and houses, it’s hard not to share the apostle’s deep concern for these precious souls. On the northwest side of the Acropolis, we climbed to the top of the Areopagus (“Rock of Ares”) or Mars Hill, where Paul had delivered his passionate speech about “the unknown God,” pleading for all to repent in view of the coming judgment (Acts 17:19-31).

     From Athens we traveled about 1 hour by bus across the narrow isthmus to the ruins of ancient Corinth, a journey that would have taken Paul a couple of days by foot (Acts 18:1). We entered the city with intrigue and fascination, while Paul had come “in weakness, in fear, and in much trembling” (1 Cor. 2:3). We spent about an hour and a half exploring the empty ruins, where the apostle had invested a year and a half “teaching the word of God among them” (Acts 18:11). We wondered which of the dilapidated shops around the agora (marketplace) may have been used by Aquila, Priscilla and Paul to manufacture and/or sell tents (Acts 18:2-3). We viewed with interest the remains of the temples of Apollo and Octavia (cf. 1 Cor. 8:10) and the fountain of Peirene (cf. Acts 18:8; 1 Cor. 1:14-16). But perhaps the most poignant site was the Bema where Paul had stood trial before the proconsul Gallio (Acts 18:12-16), after which he left behind a thriving community of believers (Acts 18:18; 1 Cor. 1:2).

     We visited too many locations in Israel to mention in detail, but among the highpoints were Caesarea Maritima (Acts 10:1; 12:19; 21:8; 23:33), the Sea of Galilee (Mark 1:16; 4:1, 36; 5:1), Caesarea Philippi (Matt. 16:13), the Mount of Beatitudes (Matt. 5:1; 8:1), Mounts Tabor and Hermon (Matt. 17:1), Capernaum (Matt. 4:13; 8:5, 14; 11:23), Tel Dan (Judg. 18:29), the Jordan River (Mark 1:5, 9), Chorazin and Bethsaida (Matt. 11:21), Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Bethlehem (Luke 2:4), the Dead Sea (Gen. 14:3; Num. 34:12), Masada (Herod the Great’s fortress), Qumran (where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered), Jericho (Josh. 6:1-27), Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:5; Mark 11:11), the temple mount and western wall (Matt. 4:5; 24:1-2; John 2:20), the temple’s southern steps and ritual baths (Acts 2:14, 41), the Garden of Gethsemane and Mount of Olives (Matt. 26:30, 36), traditional sites of Jesus’ death and resurrection (John 19:41), and Joppa (Jonah 1:3; Acts 9:36-43).

     While the proliferation of man-made shrines, cathedrals, pseudo religion, and commercialization has significantly detracted from the modest dignity of many of these sites, it helps to remember that there is nothing inherently sacred about any given place on earth. What really matters is what God has accomplished throughout history and all that he continues to accomplish in every place through his Son Jesus Christ.

     Most would agree that the highlight of the trip was worshiping with the Lord’s church in Nazareth. The last time Jesus was in Nazareth, even though he was among his hometown kinsmen, he was rejected and mistreated (Mark 6:1-6). But thanks to him, we were warmly welcomed in the midst of our spiritual family. Nowhere on this trip did we ever feel threatened or in danger, but it was in Nazareth, in the company of our brethren, where we felt right at home. “Now, therefore, you are no longer strangers and foreigners, but fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God” (Eph. 2:19).

--Kevin L. Moore

Related Posts: The Macedonians Had Names, Ancient Corinth

Image credit: Photo taken by Lynne Moore from the Acropolis, with the Areopagus (Mars Hill) in the foreground and the city of Athens in the background.