Understanding the Bible: the Study of Ancient Rhetoric

Pasquale Ottino’s Mark writes Gospel at Peter’s dictation

Rhetoric is the disciplined art of persuasion that “had an importance in Roman society equal to that of television or computers in our age…. All types of literature were affected by rhetorical techniques, and the writers of the New Testament did not escape the impact of this rhetorical education. It shaped the way they thought and the way they composed written material …” (A. A. Bell, Jr., Exploring the New Testament World 239-40). The questions that are sometimes raised about the literary education of New Testament writers do not largely affect this area of discussion, since formal training in rhetoric was not necessarily a prerequisite for making use of it. Rhetorical techniques were well known in the 1st-century Mediterranean world, “and one did not have to be formally trained in rhetoric to use them” (P. T. O’Brien, “Letters” 553). Rhetoric “was a pervasive social convention in Greco-Roman society and that rather than being the sole possession of an elite class, its customs, techniques, and practices had filtered down to all levels of society” (R. A. Ramsaran, Liberating Words 26, cf. 79-80, 147-48 nn. 13-15).  

Because the letter form in particular is more closely related to speech than narrative literature, rhetorical analysis can highlight the basic use of the letter as a substitute for the writer’s actual presence. While New Testament documents were composed in an age of letter writing, they were also produced in a largely oral and aural culture. The New Testament world was dominated by public speaking and rhetoric, and early Christianity placed much emphasis on preaching.¹ The written word was basically a tool of the oral culture, and letters were a substitute for face-to-face communication.

Paul’s writings, for example, were designed to create an “apostolic parousia,” using the letter, the public reader, and the apostle’s words to create the sense of an authoritative, personal communication as well as the anticipation of a future reunion (R. W. Funk, “Apostolic Parousia” 249-68).² Since New Testament writers like Paul understood their primary task to be the proclamation of the gospel,³ their writings were naturally composed (dictated) from the perspective of gospel preachers. The New Testament letters, having served as substitutes for the writer’s physical presence (cf. 1 Cor. 5:3-5; Col. 2:5; 1 Thess. 2:17), are comparable in many respects to oral speech, which encourages us to listen to the words as the original addressees would have heard them. 

Biblical documents were designed to be read aloud (Luke 4:16-17; 1 Thess. 5:27; Col. 4:16; 1 Tim. 4:13), not just to be seen as persuasive but heard as persuasive. Since the spoken word was primary, and the written word was merely a surrogate for verbal communication, attention had to be given to its oral and aural features.⁴ These writings “functioned not only as means of communication but also as sophisticated instruments of persuasion and media for displaying literary skill” (D. E. Aune, NT Literary 160-61).  

Biblical writers, who lacked any other practical device to implement divine directives, were not detached from the rhetorical art of persuasion, and they used it to great advantage. Paul’s contemporaries recognized his rhetorical skill: “‘The letters [of Paul],’ it is said, ‘are weighty and powerful …” (2 Cor. 10:10). Modern scholars continue to recognize his rhetorical skill: “one cannot deny that the apostle did possess a certain rhetorical mastery” (R. Riesner, Paul’s Early Period 410-11). R. N. Longenecker comments: “Paul seems to have availed himself almost unconsciously of the rhetorical forms at hand, fitting them into his inherited epistolary structures and filling them out with such Jewish theological motifs and exegetical methods as would be particularly significant …” (Galatians cxix).

Seeking to understand the Bible within its original context requires us to place ourselves among the initial recipients of these inspired documents. Any careful examination of biblical literature should therefore be augmented with rhetorical analysis.⁵

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Acts 1:15 ff.; 2:14 ff.; 3:12 ff.; 4:29-31; 5:20-21, 25, 42; 7:2 ff.; 8:4-6, 12, 25, 40; 9:20, 27-29; 10:27 ff.; 11:26; 13:5, 15 ff., 42 ff.;14:1 ff., 7, 15, 21, 25; 15:32, 35, 36; 16:10, 13, 32; 17:2-3, 10-13, 17 ff.; 18:4-11, 19, 28; 19:8-10; 20:2, 7, 20; 21:40 ff.; 23:1; 26:1 ff.; 28:17 ff., 30-31.

     ² See also D. E. Aune, NT Literary 190-91; W. G. Doty, Letters 26-27; L. A. Jervis, Purpose 110-31; R. Jewett, “Discussion” 48; P. T. O’Brien, “Letters” 552; S. N. Olson, “Self-Confidence” 596; S. E. Porter, “Exegesis” 547-48; C. J. Roetzel, Letters 65; J. L. White,  Light 19.

     ³ Rom. 1:15; 15:20; 1 Cor. 1:17; 9:16-19; 15:1-4; Gal. 1:11-12, 15-16, 23; 4:13; Eph. 3:8; 1 Thess. 2:4.

     ⁴ A. C. Thiselton, First Corinthians 44; also W. G. Doty, Letters 2; B. Witherington III, Paul Quest 89-100. This would require not only the rhetorical acumen of the writer and/or his amanuensis, but also of the public reader and perhaps the listening audience as well.

     ⁵ P. T. O’Brien, “Letters” 553. See also K. L. Moore, “Rhetorical Criticism and the Pauline Writings,” in A Critical Introduction to the NT 256-63. For a brief analysis of Paul’s apparent use of the rhetorical device known as chiasmus in 1 Cor. 11:2-16, see K. L. Moore, We Have No Such Custom 27-30.

Related Posts: Study of Ancient History, Ancient Letter Writing, Public Reading

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Understanding the Bible: the Study of Ancient Letter Writing

The letter is one of the oldest forms of written communication, becoming a very important means of interaction in the early church. Epistolography, the study of ancient letter writing, is particularly relevant to biblical analysis because the letter is the most common literary genre in the New Testament. Twenty-one of the New Testament’s twenty-seven documents are rendered in letter form. All of Paul's extant writings are letters. The General Epistles exhibit epistolary features, and Hebrews, despite the ongoing debate concerning its genre, has an epistolary conclusion. In addition to these, there are two letters imbedded in Acts (15:23; 23:26), and even the book of Revelation has an epistolary frame.¹

Due attention ought to be given to the exegetical implications of this mode of communication whenever New Testament writings are examined. For at least three centuries before and after the beginning of the Christian era, rigid epistolary conventions were in force. Much of our knowledge of ancient letter writing has come since the latter part of the 19th century, with the discovery and subsequent analysis of papyrus letters from Egypt.²

A particularly important contribution of Greek papyrus materials is the abundant evidence they provide of the frequent, if not common, presence of amanuenses in letter writing during the Hellenistic age. Business documents were often written in two, three or more different hands. Many personal letters show signs of having been drafted by an amanuensis on behalf of another. Repeatedly a refined hand is seen in the body of the letters, with the closing subscription written in a less sophisticated hand. During the time approximating the composition of New Testament letters, it appears from the papyri evidence that it was a common practice to use a secretary to draft a document, after which the correspondent himself would often add a word of farewell, his personal greetings, and the date in his own hand. 

That Paul and other New Testament writers used amanuenses in writing their letters is generally acknowledged. Paul appears to have followed the customary practice of his contemporaries by employing the aid of secretarial expertise (Rom. 16:22) and then writing his own subscription (1 Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6:11; Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 3:17; Philem. 19).³ Even in the letters wherein attention is not specifically drawn to Paul having taken the pen from his amanuensis, the original autographs probably evidenced a shift to the apostle’s distinctive handwriting (cf. 2 Thess. 3:17). Apparently this was Peter’s convention as well (1 Pet. 5:12).

Even though New Testament letters are not private correspondence in the usual sense, the inspired authors did not abandon the immediate epistolary situation to write theological essays with merely an epistolary flavoring (W. G. Doty, Letters 26-27). New Testament letters were occasioned by real situations, requests, and problems in different Christian communities, and while the letters differ considerably in content, they show a consistent general pattern in form, particularly at the beginning and end.   

The letter in the Greco-Roman world served as a means of communication between separated parties and functioned in three basic ways: to sustain contact with friends and family, to disseminate information, and to request information or favors. For New Testament authors, however, the letter was more than just a mode of conversation – it was also an extension of divine authority as inspired communicators of heavenly truth.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See E. S. Fiorenza, “Composition and Structure” 367-81; J. M. Lieu, “Grace to You” 172-73; J. L. White, “Saint Paul” 444.

     ² See K. L. Moore, “Epistolography and the Writings of Paul,” in A Critical Introduction to the NT 100-114; also J. H. Greenlee,  Introduction to NT Textual Criticism 8-23; B. M. Metzger and B. D. Ehrman, The Text of the NT (4th ed.) 3-33, 206; J. Murphy-O’Connor, Paul the Letter-Writer 1-41.  

     ³ G. J. Bahr suggests that the noticeable difference between Paul’s unimpressive oratory and his impressive letters (2 Cor. 10:10) may be attributable to the writing ability of his secretary (“Letter Writing” 476). W. G. Kümmel notes that the specific references to Paul’s own handwriting were likely included because the letters were read aloud and this was the only way for the listening audience to be made aware of the fact (Introduction 251). In one of the most comprehensive studies on Paul’s use of secretarial services, E. R. Richards concludes that the following letters were probably written by or with the help of an amanuensis: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon (Secretary201).

Related Posts: Study of Ancient History, Study of Ancient Rhetoric, Production of NT Part 1 and Part 2 

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Divine Revelation and the Inspiration of Biblical Writings

     While God’s will has been communicated to humans in a variety of ways throughout history, it is now revealed through a “Son” (Heb. 1:1-3), viz. God’s Son (Heb. 1:5; 5:5; 6:6), Jesus the Christ (Heb. 3:6; 4:14; cf. Matt. 17:5; 28:18; John 12:48; Acts 3:22). Christ’s authority is conveyed in his words (John 8:31-32; 12:48; 14:23; 15:3, 7), and from the earliest days of the Christian movement, his teachings have been considered authoritative (cf. Acts 11:16; 20:35; 1 Cor. 7:10; 11:23-25; 1 Tim. 5:18; 1 John 1:1-4).

     The Holy Spirit was sent to transmit the authoritative message of Christ through inspired men (John 14:25-26; 15:26-27; 16:13; Acts 1:1-8; Heb. 2:3-4). Supernaturally-guided apostles and prophets communicated the divine message both orally and in written form (John 21:24; Eph. 3:1-6; 1 Cor. 14:37; 1 John 1:1-4; 2:1; Rev. 1:10-11). The will of God is communicated via Jesus Christ (Heb. 1:1-3; 12:24), via the Spirit (Heb. 3:7; 10:15), via the word (Heb. 3:7; 4:12; 10:15-17).¹

     The inspired message was complete and sufficient in both its oral and written forms (Acts 20:27; Rom. 15:14; Gal. 1:8-9; 2 Pet. 1:3; Jude 3; cf. 2 Thess. 2:15; 2 Tim. 1:13; 3:16-17; Tit. 1:9). We now have access to the complete message of God through these inspired writings (John 20:30-31; Eph. 3:3-5; Rev. 1:10-11; 2:1, 7, 8, 11, 12, 17). The divine chain of authority is God→ Christ→ Spirit→ apostles/ prophets→ written word.

The Process of Revelation and Inspiration

     Much can be learned about the process of divine revelation and inspiration from the Old Testament, which serves as the backdrop for the composition of the New Testament. Approximately 130 times in the Hebrew Bible one finds the expression (or one comparable to it), “The word of the Lord came to …” (Isa. 1:2; Joel 1:1; Micah 1:1; etc.), connected to twenty-eight different persons, the majority of whom were writing prophets (M. C. Tenney, The Bible 15-17). While God is recognized as the ultimate source of the divine message (cf. Ex. 4:12; Deut. 18:18; 2 Sam. 23:2), human instrumentality is also acknowledged (cf. Josh. 1:7; 8:31; 24:26; Mark 7:6, 10; 12:36-37; Acts 4:25; 28:25; Rom. 10:5, 20; 11:9).

Conclusion

     The Bible is the word of God communicated through the words of men. “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, thoroughly equipped for every good work” (2 Tim. 3:16-17).²

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See also Heb. 2:3-4; Matt. 10:18-20; Luke 1:70; Acts 3:21; 20:24-32; 1 Cor. 7:40; 11:23; 2 Tim. 3:14-17; 2 Pet. 1:2-21.

     ² Scripture quotations are from the NKJV.

Related Posts: Biblical Inspiration in Perspective, What the Scriptures Say About the Scriptures

Related articles: John Jones' What's the Big Deal About Inerrancy?, Dave Miller, The Nature of Bible Inspiration

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The Production of a New Testament Document (Part 1 of 2)

Writing materials

     Materials used to transmit writing in antiquity included stone, wood, bone, clay and wax tablets, various metals, ostraca (potsherds), papyrus, and parchment (or vellum). Only the latter two were used for New Testament manuscripts. Papyrus was the most inexpensive and convenient writing material, and thus the more commonly used. It is almost certain that the original New Testament documents were written on papyrus. 

     The center section of the papyrus plant,¹ growing primarily in the marshlands of Egypt along the Nile, was cut into thin strips laid side by side with a second layer added crosswise, then pressed together to form sheets of primitive “paper” (see Pliny, Natural History 13.74-82). The English word “paper” (via Old French) comes from the Latin papyrus, which is transliterated from the Greek papuros. 
     The center section (pith) of the papyrus plant was known as biblos or bublos, and the resulting sheet of writing material was called chartēs (from which we get the English word “chart”), mentioned in 2 John 12. A roll of papyrus sheets that contained a particular writing was also called biblos or biblion (from which we get the English words “bibliography” and “Bible”), and if a plurality of rolls were required for a particular work, each roll was called tomos (from which we get the English word “tome”).

     Parchment (tanned animal skin) was used as a writing material from very ancient times but did not come into common use until the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The term “parchment” is derived from the name Pergamum (a city in Mysia of Asia Minor), noted for its fine quality of parchment (pergamēnē) or vellum, which it manufactured and exported. The words “parchment” and “vellum” are sometimes used interchangeably, but vellum is a superior quality of parchment usually made of calfskin. For parchment the skins of cattle, sheep, goats, and antelopes were used.² This writing material was more durable than papyrus and better suited for writing on both sides. Practically all of the extant New Testament manuscripts from the 4th–14th centuries are transcribed on parchment.

Writing Utensils

     The type of writing instrument was generally determined by the material upon which the writing was done; e.g., a stylus (made of metal, ivory or bone with a pointed end) was commonly used on wax tablets. The reed pen (kalomos) was the standard writing utensil throughout antiquity, particularly for papyrus and parchment documents, mentioned in 3 John 13. The earliest reed pens were frayed at the end like a brush, but later they had a sharpened point with a split. Virtually all extant papyrus manuscripts of the New Testament were written with a reed pen.³

     Black ink (melan) was typically used (2 Cor. 3:3; 2 John 12; 3 John 13).⁴ It was made in one of two ways: charcoal or soot or lamp-black and gum were dissolved in water, or nut-galls were ground and mixed with other ingredients to form a black ink, although it would eventually fade into a rusty-brown color (as in Codex B and Codex D). A nut-gall is “a curious ball-like tumor, about the size of a small marble, that grows mainly on the leaves or twigs of oak trees. It is formed when the gall wasp lays its egg in the growing bud of the tree and a soft, pale green, apple-like sphere begins to form around the larva” (B. M. Metzger and B. D. Ehrman, The Text of the NT 10). Later additional colors were used (mostly for decorative purposes), including red, gold, silver, brown, blue, yellow, and purple.

     Other tools included bronze and earthenware inkwells, a knife for sharpening or making a new pen, a sponge for erasing mistakes or cleaning the pen, and a pumice stone for smoothing the writing surface.

Conclusion

     In order for God’s revealed word to be available through the centuries, it needed to be transmitted in written form. Biblical writers used the materials available at the time to disseminate and preserve the divine message. This, in conjunction with the providential working of God, has ensured that “the word of the LORD endures forever” (1 Pet. 1:23-25).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ “The plant has a root as thick as a person’s arm and tapers gracefully up with triangular sides …” (J. Murphy-O’Connor, Paul the Letter-Writer 4). “Its broad root stretches horizontally under the mud, and from this rise several strong stalks, triangular in cross section; short brown leaves protect the base…. growing to a height of 12 or 15 feet. At its top the stalk splits into a mass of strands (the umbel), and at the end of these the plant produces small brown flowers. The stalk of the papyrus plant has a tough green rind that contains an ivory white pith …” (B. M. Metzger and B. D. Ehrman, The Text of the NT 4).

     ² For a good description of the process of making parchment, see B. M. Metzger and B. D. Ehrman, The Text of the NT 9-10.

     ³ The Egyptian reed pens were mostly the hollow tubular-stems of marsh grasses, especially from the bamboo plant, that served as a primitive form of a fountain pen. One end was cut into the form of a pen nib or point, ink filled the stem, and the reed forced the fluid to the nib. The quill pen was introduced later and eventually replaced the reed pen for writing on parchment.

     ⁴ The Hebrew word for ink is deyo because of its blackness (cf. Jer. 36:18). There is uncertainty as to whom the invention of ink is to be attributed, whether the Egyptians, the Chinese, the Babylonians, or the Phoenicians.

Related Posts: The Production of a NT Document Part 2, Divine Revelation and Inspiration of the Scriptures

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Silas/Silvanus: Leader, Writer, Missionary

     Silas of the Acts narrative¹ is Silvanus of the epistles² (cp. Acts 18:5; 2 Cor. 1:19). Having more than one name in the ancient Greco-Roman world was fairly common (e.g. Saul/Paul, Tabitha/Dorcas, John/Mark, etc.). The name “Silvanus” is Latin,³ which is not unusual for a Roman citizen (Acts 16:37, 38), while the name “Silas” is Greek, evidently favored by the Greek Dr. Luke in his historical account. It is possible that the name “Silas” is simply an abbreviated version of “Silvanus.”

     Silas first appears in the biblical record in Acts 15, involved in the meeting of the Jerusalem elders and apostles discussing the circumcision controversy. He is mentioned with Judas Barsabas,⁴ both described as “leading men among the brethren” (v. 22b NKJV). Being a recognized leader in a congregation that has apostles and elders is pretty impressive.

     After discussing the issue and reaching a consensus under the Holy Spirit’s guidance (Acts 15:28), it was determined that Judas Barsabas and Silas would put the decision into writing on the group’s behalf (vv. 22-23). Note that the verbal form grapsantes is from graphō, which means to “write” (ASV, ERV, HCSB, ISV, N/KJV, WEB),⁵ although several English translations have curiously rendered it “sent” (ESV, NASB, NET, NIV, N/RSV, cf. NLT). Granted, Judas Barsabas and Silas were the letter carriers (vv. 22a, 27), but someone had to do the writing, and the verb graphō identifies these two men as the designated scribes.

     Not everyone in the ancient Greco-Roman world (even among the educated) was capable of writing, much less writing well. The typical procedure in these predominantly oral cultures was to verbally dictate information to a trained amanuensis (secretary) who was responsible for putting it into writing. Note that Baruch wrote for Jeremiah (Jer. 36:1-32), Tertius wrote for Paul (Rom. 16:22), and Silvanus wrote for Peter (1 Pet. 5:12, discussed further below).⁶ If multiple copies of the Jerusalem-conference letter were needed to send to multiple congregations (cf. Acts 15:23, 30, 41; 16:4), more than one amanuensis would be preferable. The point is, Silas (as well as Judas B.) was a skilled writer, a fact that becomes even more significant as this study continues.

     The document was hand-delivered and read, and Judas B. and Silas are identified as “prophets” who gave additional instruction as they “exhorted and strengthened the brethren with many words” (Acts 15:27, 32). Here we learn that Silas (as well as Judas B.) was a divinely inspired and adept teacher, as well as an encourager.

     When the apostle Paul needed a new missionary partner after he and Barnabas parted ways (Acts 15:36-39), Silas was chosen to fill the void (v. 40). Evidently he was someone in whom the apostle had a great deal of confidence and is never depicted as a subordinate or understudy but as an equal partner. After adding a couple more teammates, the mission team headed to Macedonia (Acts 16:1-12).

     In Philippi Silas participated in preaching Christ’s gospel, leading to the first converts on European soil (Acts 16:13-15). It was Silas who was working with Paul when the two were apprehended, dragged before the magistrates, and accused of disturbing the peace (a very serious charge under Roman law!). They were beaten with rods and with many stripes, then thrown into the inner prison with their feet secured in stocks (vv. 19-24). “But at midnight Paul and Silas were praying and singing hymns to God, and the prisoners were listening to them” (v. 25). The situation would have been much more daunting for Paul had Silas not been at his side.

     Later Paul and Silas together had the opportunity to teach the word of the Lord to the jailer and his family, resulting in more conversions (Acts 16:29-34). It is here we learn that Silas (like Paul) was an ethnic Jew and a Roman citizen (vv. 20, 37, 38). Silas also helped to evangelize the residents of Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth (Acts 17:1–18:5) – leaving behind established congregations⁷ – before fading out of the Acts narrative, only to reappear in the epistles.

     A relatively short time after Paul, Silas (a.k.a. Silvanus), and Timothy had departed from Thessalonica, they collectively wrote a letter to the church of the Thessalonians (1 Thess. 1:1; 2:17), followed by a second letter not long thereafter (2 Thess. 1:1).⁸ Both documents are written almost entirely in the “we” form of address to “you” the Thessalonian readers. While Paul was obviously the leading correspondent, he kept his personal comments to a minimum in both 1 Thessalonians (2:18; 3:5; 5:27) and 2 Thessalonians (2:5; 3:17). Moreover, the implication of 2 Thess. 3:17 is that the actual writing of the material preceding the postscript was done by someone other than Paul himself. Seeing that Silvanus was both a prophet and an efficient writer, his contribution to the Thessalonian correspondence should not be ignored.

     Over a decade after his last known whereabouts in the biblical report, Silvanus reappears as the apostle Peter’s coworker. At the end of Peter’s first epistle, the acknowledgment is made: “By Silvanus, our faithful brother as I consider him, I have written [graphō] to you briefly …” (1 Pet. 5:12). Simon Peter, an uneducated fisherman (Acts 4:13), partnered with Silvanus, a prophet and competent writer, in producing this inspired document.

     Beyond these few details, little else is known about Silas/Silvanus. The New Testament record shows that he was:

o   a capable leader

o   an inspired prophet

o   an encouraging teacher

o   a dedicated missionary

o   an invaluable coworker

o   a skilled writer

His writing projects included at least four biblical manuscripts: the letter embedded in Acts 15:23-29, the Thessalonian correspondence, and 1 Peter.⁹ His vital role in the establishment and spread of the early Christian movement cannot be denied, the effects of which are still being experienced today. How unfortunate that the extent of his work is often overlooked and underappreciated. May we be encouraged and motivated by his life of faithful service.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Acts 15:22–18:5.

     ² 2 Cor. 1:19 [cf. 10:14]; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; 1 Pet. 5:12.

     ³ Silvanus (meaning “of the woods” in Latin) was the name of a Roman deity considered to be the protector of forests and fields, including crops, herds, and flocks.

     ⁴ See The Aramaic Patronymic Bar-.

     ⁵ Cf. Acts 1:20; 7:42; 13:29, 33; 15:15; 18:27; 23:5, 25; 24:14; 25:26.

     ⁶ See Challenging Anti-Conservative Presuppositions Part 4.

     ⁷ Cf. 1 Thess. 2:1-2, 13; 3:1-2; 2 Cor. 1:19. In addition to his initial evangelistic efforts, Silas’ ongoing follow-up work is indicated by his remaining in Berea (Acts 17:14), returning to Macedonia after meeting Paul in Athens (Acts 17:15; 1 Thess. 1:1; 3:1-2; Acts 18:5), and potentially remaining in Corinth after Paul’s departure (Acts 18:5, 18).

     ⁸ See The Letters of Paul, Silvans & Timothy to the Thessalonians. 

     ⁹ For his potential involvement in the writing of Hebrews, see Plural Authorship of Hebrews Part 1, and Part 2.

Related Posts: Titus, The Story of Young Jacob

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