The New Jerusalem: Heaven or the Church?

In Revelation 21:1-5, we read:

Now I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away. Also there was no more sea. Then I, John, saw the holy city, New Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband. And I heard a loud voice from heaven saying, “Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and He will dwell with them, and they shall be His people. God Himself will be with them and be their God. And God will wipe away every tear from their eyes; there shall be no more death, nor sorrow, nor crying. There shall be no more pain, for the former things have passed away.” Then He who sat on the throne said, “Behold, I make all things new.” And He said to me, “Write, for these words are true and faithful.” (NKJV)

While a number of interpreters consider this passage to be descriptive of heaven itself, what John saw was “coming down out of heaven.” Others have concluded that the vision symbolically depicts the church on earth, even though the imagery seems more heavenly than earthly.

Deciphering the Symbolism 

John saw “a new heaven and a new earth,” a description comparable to 2 Peter 3:5-13, borrowed from Isaiah 65:17 and 66:22.¹ When the words “heaven(s) and earth” are used together in scripture, the phrase typically refers to the physical realm of human inhabitance, inclusive of sunlight, rain, oxygen, and terra firma (Isa. 51:6; Jer. 51:48; Joel 3:16; Matt. 24:31, 35; Heb. 1:10-11). While our literal dwelling place (the physical cosmos) will ultimately pass away (Matt. 24:35; 2 Pet. 3:7-12), it serves as a figure for the new, spiritual realm prepared by God for his people.² 

John saw “the holy city, New Jerusalem,” which elsewhere symbolizes the church [ekklēsía] enrolled in heaven but also the future heavenly home (Heb. 11:10-16; 12:22-23). What John saw was “prepared as a bride,” which is descriptive of the church (Rev. 19:7-8; cf. 2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24-27), a spiritual entity that will endure through eternity (Eph. 3:21; 1 Thess. 4:16-17). God dwelling with his people is both a current reality (1 Cor. 3:16-17; Eph. 2:22) and a future expectation (1 Cor. 15:24; Phil. 1:23; 3:20). And what about the former things passing away as all things are made new, including the removal of tears, death, sorrow, crying, and pain? 

Tension Between Now and Not Yet

The Lord promises, right now: “whoever lives and believes in Me shall never die …” (John 11:26); “… in Christ all shall be made alive” (1 Cor. 15:22); “even when we were dead in trespasses, made us alive together with Christ …” (Eph. 2:5);  “Therefore we do not lose heart. Even though our outward man is perishing, yet the inward [man] is being renewed day by day. For our light affliction, which is but for a moment, is working for us a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory …. Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation; old things have passed away; behold, all things have become new” (2 Cor. 4:16–5:17); “But I do not want you to be ignorant, brethren, concerning those who have fallen asleep, lest you sorrow as others who have no hope …. Rejoice always” (1 Thess. 4:13; 5:16).

Nevertheless, we still anticipate the future: “Rejoice and be exceedingly glad, for great is your reward in heaven …” (Matt. 5:12); “For we were saved in this hope …. we eagerly wait for it with perseverance” (Rom. 8:24-25); “For our citizenship is in heaven, from which we also eagerly wait for the Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ” (Phil. 3:20); “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who according to His abundant mercy has begotten us again to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, to an inheritance incorruptible and undefiled and that does not fade away, reserved in heaven for you, who are kept by the power of God through faith for salvation ready to be revealed in the last time. In this you greatly rejoice, though now for a little while, if need be, you have been grieved by various trials, that the genuineness of your faith, being much more precious than gold that perishes, though it is tested by fire, may be found to praise, honor, and glory at the revelation of Jesus Christ” (1 Pet. 1:3-7). Therefore, “Set your mind on things above, not on things on the earth” (Col. 3:2).

Conclusion

Is the “New Jerusalem” a symbol of the church or a symbol of heaven? Yes it is! To be part of one is to be included in the other. All faithful members of Christ’s body have their names registered in heaven (Phil. 4:3; Heb. 12:23; Rev. 21:27). God’s manifold blessings are available both “now in this time … and in the age to come” (Mark 10:29-30).

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ See Isaiah's New Heavens and New Earth.

     ² See also New Heavens and New Earth.

Related Posts: Measuring the Heavenly City (Rev. 21:16), Introducing the Book of Revelation Part 3, Matthew's Curious Account

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The Pentecost-day Miracle: 12 or 120?

In Acts 2:1-4 the description of the Pentecost-day outpouring of the Holy Spirit begins with these words: “they were all together in the same [place]” (v. 1).¹ To whom does the pronominal reference apply? Is Luke speaking of the12 apostles of 1:26, or the 120 disciples of 1:14-15?

In the late 4th century John Chrysostom offered his thoughts on the question: “Was it upon the twelve that it came? Not so; but upon the hundred and twenty.”² In the generations following, this has been a popular interpretation. The “all,” according to Heinrich A. W. Meyer, “were not merely the apostles, but all the followers of Jesus then in Jerusalem, partly natives and partly strangers, including the apostles” (emp. in the text).³ R. C. H. Lenski confidently affirms: “‘All’ refers to the persons mentioned in 1:12-15 and certainly includes the women …”⁴ Ernst Haenchen concurs, making application to “the Christians, i.e. the one hundred and twenty persons of 1.15 [‘not only the Apostles’] …”⁵ David J. Williams comments, “By ‘all’ we may assume that at least the hundred and twenty of 1:15 were included …”⁶

As prevalent as this view has been and continues to be, is it correct? Have those making this claim given sufficient, unbiased attention to key contextual matters?

The Immediate Literary Context

Between Christ’s ascension and the Day of Pentecost the apostles did assemble with approximately 120 believers (Acts 1:15), yet several days elapsed from the apostles’ return to Jerusalem to the outpouring of the Spirit (cf. 1:5). Seeing that Pentecost was fifty days after Passover (Lev. 23:15-16), and from Christ’s resurrection to his ascension was forty days (Matt. 28:1; Acts 1:3), over a week stood between the Lord’s ascension and the Day of Pentecost. The temple was the regular assembling place for larger groups (Acts 2:46; 5:42), so it is helpful to note their prayer meetings were in the temple (Luke 24:53), not in the upper room where the apostles were residing. 

When Luke reports that “they” were in the same place (Acts 2:1), the nearest antecedent is the “apostles” (1:26). In order to include 120 men and women, one has to skip back over eleven verses and ignore the immediate context. Further, the apostles are the only ones recorded in Acts 2 as speaking from God, and the masculine pronoun houtoi (“these”) in verses 7 and 15 (literally “these men”) clearly has reference to them. Contextually the baptism of the Holy Spirit had not been promised to all believers but specifically “to the apostles whom [Christ] had chosen” (Acts 1:2-8; see also 2:43; 5:12).⁷ 

But what about the description in Acts 2:17-18 regarding the pouring out of the Spirit “upon all flesh” [epì pâsan sárka], including sons, daughters, young and old men, and male and female slaves? This is part of a quote from the 9th-century BC prophet Joel concerning events to occur “in the last days” (vv. 16-17), i.e., over an extended period of time rather than all at once. As we continue reading the historical record of Acts and beyond, we see the gradual fulfilling of this prophecy (e.g. 2:39, 43; 4:33; 5:12, 32; 10:24-48; 11:12-18; 21:8-9), involving the laying on of apostolic hands (6:6; 8:17-18), and eventually the Lord’s spectacular judgment against nationalistic Judaism in AD 70 (cp. Isa. 13:6-11; 34:1-5; Ezek. 32:7-8). 

What About the House?

All who received the outpouring of the Spirit on this occasion were in “the same [place]” [tò autó] (Acts 2:1), more directly identified as “the house” [tòn oîkon] (v. 2). Earlier, at the Lord’s instruction, Peter and John had located the place where Christ would eat the Passover meal with his 12 apostles, viz. a “lodging place” or “guest room” [katáluma] that was a furnished “large upper room” [anágaion méga] in “the house” [tēn oikían…tēs oikías] (Mark 14:14-15; Luke 22:10-12). Was this the same locality in Jerusalem as “the upper room [tò huperōon] where they were staying” (Acts 1:13)? Although the text is not definitive, Luke is alluding specifically to “the house,” i.e., not just any house but one in particular, presumably the site of previous reference. 

What do we know about houses in 1st-century Palestine?

During the Roman period typical urban housing in this region consisted of at least four types: (a) the simple house; (b) the courtyard house; (c) the shop-house; and (d) the mansion (domus).⁸ These dwellings differed in size, architecture, construction materials, and furnishings, indicative of various socioeconomic levels and family units. 

The most common type of housing, in which the majority of the population lived, was the simple house. It was quadrangular in shape, joined to a courtyard (for domestic chores), and divided into three or more rooms. These dwellings ranged in size from about 215 sq. feet (20m²) to 2152 sq. feet (200m²), although most were comparatively small. Not considering room divisions and the courtyard, the area would be comparable to the interior of a school bus or three-car garage. If this is the type of residence alluded to in Acts 2:2, it would have been extremely difficult if not nearly impossible to cram 120 people in any one room.

Another type of residence was the courtyard house, ranging in total size from around 2152 sq. feet (200m²) to 3229 sq. feet (300m²). These were occupied by multiple families of slightly higher economic standing, generally consisting of four dwellings of two or more rooms each, sharing a courtyard and a single entrance. Since Luke reports “they were all together in the same [place]” (Acts 2:1), almost certainly this type of structure would be excluded if 120 occupants were in view. While the total area would approximate a small one- or two-bedroom apartment, about half to three-fourths the size of a modern-day basketball court, each room would not be much bigger than that of a simple house.

Houses with shops (tabernae) were common in most cities of the Roman Empire, as were apartment buildings, many of which were built on top of the shop-houses. Even though there is no archaeological evidence in Jerusalem of ancient apartment buildings, neither a shop-house nor an apartment would have been large enough to facilitate a sizeable group. 

The other type of house was the much more spacious mansion (domus), inhabited by the wealthy upper class. Archaeological remains of such dwellings have been unearthed in Galilee, the best preserved of which is a 72-feet (22m) by 39 feet (12m) building with eleven rooms for various usages. “These mansions had space enough to house a large family and a good number of servants, as well as to receive clients and friends, and to conduct the business transactions and social gatherings that were frequently held in the large houses in Antiquity (Vitrubio, De Architectura 6:5, 1-12). The existence of this type of house in relatively high numbers is one more indication of Graeco-Roman influence in Galilee during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.”⁹  

Assuming there was such a house farther south in ancient Jerusalem,¹⁰ and assuming Jesus and/or his immediate disciples had access to it, and assuming this is potentially the kind of structure Luke is alluding to in Acts 2:2, would approximately 120 people fit in any one room? The largest space in these homes was the atrium, and archeological discoveries elsewhere have conclusively shown that the atrium in a large Roman-style residence would accommodate only about 30 to 50 people—still inadequate for a gathering of about three times that size.¹¹

Alternatively, if “the house” of Acts 2:1-2 was in fact the location of “the upper room where they were staying” (Acts 1:13), in its urban setting the building would have been less spread out like the typical mansion and would have occupied a smaller section of land and thus built upward with more than one story. The landmass of urban environments in antiquity was relatively small compared to modern cities, while population density was rather high with very crowded living conditions.¹²

Conclusion

The biblical text itself sufficiently demonstrates that the referential “they” of Acts 2:1 is the small group of 12 apostles of 1:26. Considering there were no chapter and verse divisions when Luke first penned these words, the connection and flow of thought are even clearer. Sociocultural and archaeological evidence provides further confirmation, helping to illuminate our understanding even more. 

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Unless otherwise noted, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.

     ² “Homily 4 on Acts of the Apostles,” in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series I, Vol. 11, ed. P. Schaff (Grand Rapids: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1889): 55. 

     ³ Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Acts of the Apostles, Vol. 4, trans. P. J. Gloag and W. P. Dickson (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1884): 42.

     ⁴ The Interpretation of the Acts of the Apostles (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1964): 57.

     ⁵ The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1971): 167.

     ⁶ Acts NIBC vol. 5 (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1990): 39. See also J. B. Polhill, Acts NAC 26 (Nashville: Broadman, 1992).

     ⁷ Prior to his ascension, Jesus declared: “you will be immersed in the Holy Spirit not many days from now” (Acts 1:5). This was not a universal pronouncement for all people of all time but a specific address to “the apostles whom he had chosen” (v. 2) to be fulfilled not long after it was spoken. It was a reiteration of the promise he had given them multiple times before (John 14:25-26; 15:26-27; 16:12-13).  

     ⁸ The information in this section is based on Santiago Guijarro’s “The Family in First-Century Galilee,” in Constructing Early Christian Families, ed. Halvor Moxnes (London/NY: Routledge, 1997): 49-55.

     ⁹ S. Guijarro, “Family in First-Century,” op. cit. 54-55.

     ¹⁰ In the 1970s the remains of a 6,500 sq. ft. (603.87m²) palace were discovered in Jerusalem, the largest ever found in Israel, speculated by some to have been the residence of the high priest Annas (cf. John 18:13-24). See Justin Taylor, “Is This the High Priestly Palace…” TGC (28 Aug. 2012), <Web>.

     ¹¹ See Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians NIC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987): 533-34; and esp. Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology (Wilmington, DE: Liturgical Press, 1983): 178-85, providing dimensions of numerous archaeological sites throughout the empire. 

     ¹² Wayne A. Meeks, The First Urban Christians: the Social World of the Apostle Paul (New Haven: Yale University, 1983): 28-29. Although Ben Witherington III favors a different application, he concedes, “it is unlikely that Luke is thinking of a Christian house holding 120 people” (The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998]: 131 n. 8).

Related Posts: House Churches, Duration of Miracles: 1 Cor. 13:8-13, Holy Spirit Baptism

Image credit: http://www.womeninthebible.net/bible-archaeology/ancient_houses/

What Did the Centurion Say?

Matthew reports that a centurion and those with him, having witnessed the extraordinary events surrounding the Lord’s crucifixion, were fearful and said, “Truly this was theoû huiòs” (Matt. 27:54).¹ Mark informs his readers that the centurion, having observed the manner of Jesus’ passing, exclaimed, “Truly this man was huiòs theoû” (Mark 15:39). If these words were originally spoken in Latin (the language of the Romans), Matthew and Mark have provided Greek translations that have been preserved in the Greek New Testament. The challenge for English readers is determining the sense of the predicate nominative and its modifier (left untranslated above) in the respective accounts. 

Most translators have opted for the insertion of the definite article and capitalization to make a theological statement: “the Son of God.” But was this the original intent (and understanding) of this pagan officer and his colleagues? The phrase as recorded by Matthew and Mark could legitimately be interpreted and rendered, “a son of God” or “a son of a god.” Unless one is inordinately devoted to the translational decisions of uninspired linguists, one should consider all options and let the biblical text itself in light of the circumstances and the overall context of scripture be the determinative factor. 

Luke reports this incident as well, observing that the centurion, moved by what he saw, glorified “God” [tòn theòn] and called Jesus a “righteous” [díkaios] man (Luke 23:47). Luke’s account seems to suggest that the pagan soldier was aware of “the God,” whether in the henotheistic sense of a supreme deity above the lesser ones, or in the biblical sense of the one true God exclusively (cf. 1 Cor. 8:4-7). Either way, the description of Jesus as a “righteous” [díkaios] man helps clarify the intent of the centurion’s words as recounted in the other Gospels.

The adjectival díkaios in the New Testament conveys the sense of “righteous,” or “upright,” or “just” (in God’s sight), i.e., “innocent” or “faultless.” This was the mutual consensus of Pontius Pilate, Pilate’s wife, and Herod Antipas in their assessment of Jesus (Matt. 27:4, 18-24; Luke 23:4, 14-22; John 18:38; 19:4-6). The centurion and those with him at the cross apparently shared the same sentiment. It is surely within the realm of possibility that Luke had personally met and interviewed this man (cf. Luke 1:1-4) and was therefore able to capture the true intent of what he said. Matthew and Mark simply recorded the words in Greek without further clarification or explanation.² The expression huiòs theoû may simply have been an idiomatic way of describing a “godly” person.³ 

Irrespective of English translation, the centurion’s statement as reported in the respective Gospel accounts unlikely reflects the same understanding and faith developed in others who had much greater observational and learning opportunities (Matt. 14:33; 16:16; John 20:31; etc.). The fact that the Lord Jesus Christ is the Son of God is well attested by numerous witnesses throughout the New Testament,⁴ and is not dependent on this isolated case.

--Kevin L. Moore

Endnotes:

     ¹ Unless noted otherwise, scripture quotations are the author’s own translation.
     ² D. E. Aune affirms that ancient historians observed the adage, “without adding or deleting anything,” although repeating words verbatim was not deemed necessary (NT Literary Environment 82).
     ³ In the ancient Mediterranean world, the word “son” was often used to describe one’s character, disposition, nature, or conduct. For example, “sons of Belial” (Judg. 19:22; 1 Sam. 2:12); “sons of might” (Psa. 29:1; 89:6); “son of wickedness” (Psa. 89:22); “sons of the sorceress” (Isa. 57:3); “sons of thunder” (Mark 3:17); “sons of this world” (Luke 16:8); “sons of light” (John 12:36; Eph. 5:8; 1 Thess. 5:5); “son of encouragement” (Acts 4:36); “son of destruction” (John 17:12; 2 Thess. 2:3).

     ³ See K. L. Moore, “Jesus Christ: the Son of God,” Moore Perspective (18 Jan. 2017), <Link>.

Related Posts: Uniqueness of Mark's Gospel, Synoptic Confusion

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